Implication versus inference: analyzing writer and reader representations in business texts.

The narrative concepts of the implied author and implied reader elucidate how business texts represent writers and readers. It is important, though, to distinguish carefully between writers' implications and readers 'inferences. Instructors should contrast implied versus inferred writers and

readers, provide multiple ways to comprehend these concepts, and illustrate them with examples (e.g., those provided in this article from Citigroup, Andersen, and Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia). The meaning-as-event analytical method, from reader-response narrative theory, reveals specific language features through which business texts manifest readers and writers. To help writers plan and readers analyze such texts, instructors may use the teaching suggestions, sample assignments, prewriting heuristics, and evaluation criteria provided in this article.

Keywords: implied reader; implied writer; inference; narrative; reader-response theory

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"DEAR VALUED CLIENT," Citigroup CEO and Chairman Thomas W. Jones wrote on October 15, 2001 (see Appendix A):

   It is with a deep sense of loss, but also with the certainty
   of better days ahead, that I write to you in the aftermath
   of September 11th. A month has passed, and the depth and
   range of my emotions remain profound.

Though the situation was unique, the letter's opening presented two elements that are important in almost all business texts: representations of the writer and the reader.

This article explains an approach that helps students and practitioners understand such representations, which in narrative theory are called the implied author and the implied reader. The approach I propose involves increasing awareness of the difference between the writer's implications and the reader's inferences, a distinction often overlooked in analyses of both literary and nonliterary texts.

In this article, I first discuss why these narrative concepts are relevant to business communication. Then I explain illustrate, and contrast the concepts of implied and inferred readers and writers. Next, I demonstrate how one analytical method helps elucidate the specific ways in which business texts manifest representations of readers and writers. Finally, I recommend related assignments and activities that can be used in undergraduate, graduate, and executive courses to help students understand these concepts.

APPLYING NARRATIVE CONCEPTS TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

The implied author is a literary concept critics use to distinguish the author as revealed in the text from both the historical author and from the text's narrator (Booth, 1961; Slatoff, 1970). In literary studies, the preferred term is implied author, but implied writer seems more appropriate for nonliterary contexts. The implied writer is the writer's self representation in the text. The whole, live human being who writes is never exactly the same as the implied writer because it is impossible and unnecessary to convey all the elements of a person's character, personality, roles, and values in a given text. The Thomas Jones portrayed in the Citigroup letter may share feelings and beliefs with the live Thomas Jones but is a subset and abstraction of the whole person.

The implied reader is the writer's expression of who the intended reader is. The whole, live human beings who read a text are not the same as the qualities the writer attributes to them. The valued client" may or may not share the beliefs, concerns, and motivations Jones posits in his letter. Drawn from literary studies, especially phenomenological criticism, the implied reader concept forms the basis for critical analysis of the reading proCess (Eco, 1984; Iser, 1974, 1978).

Though the concepts of the implied writer and reader originated in literary studies, they are equally valuable when applied to nonliterary discourse. The line between these is not distinct. Stanley Fish (1970), the literary and cultural critic, asserted that "we have for too long, and without notable results, been trying to determine what distinguishes literature from ordinary language. If we understood 'language,' its constituents and its operations, we would be better able to understand its subcategories" (pp. 146-147). The process by which readers interact with a text, become aware of the writer behind the words, and participate in the creation of negotiated meaning is similar whether that text is a business report or bildungsroman, memo or melodrama, e-mail or elegy.

The implied writer and reader are important in business communication because they can influence live readers' feelings, beliefs, and actions. A study by Shelby and Reinsch (1995) found that readers' perceptions of implied writers' attitudes, as expressed in texts, significantly predicted readers' commitment to act, which in turn predicted feelings of satisfaction with the communication. According to a study by Jameson (2000), financial reports that assign different roles to multiple implied writers and create appealing implied readers can influence investors' beliefs about general investment principles and about specific investment companies. In an analysis of a series of sweepstakes letters, Ewald and Vann (2003) concluded that the construction of the implied reader as winner and friend contributed to elderly readers' taking action, even when doing so might not have been in their best interests.

Besides these types of effects, the implied writer and reader also influence and are influenced by genres. Goodwin (1996) discussed how the formal features and social functions of the psycholegal forensic report genre derive from and appeal to the implied reader, defined as "a hypothetical, abstract, and generalized person being postulated by--and existing solely within--the text" (p. 171). Based on a study of professional writers' composing processes, Thralls, Blyler, and Ewald (1988) theorized that writers who perceived genre conventions as constrained or ritualized were more likely to focus on the abstract, implied reader rather than the particular, live reader.

Most business communication textbooks discuss implied readers and writers briefly, if at all; however, these concepts can provide an excellent basis for business communication pedagogy to help explain the perplexing gulf that often exists between what writers intend and what readers interpret in a text.

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN IMPLICATION AND INFERENCE

In order to adapt these narrative concepts to business communication pedagogy, instructors and students must distinguish carefully between the implied writer and reader and the inferred writer and reader. To do this, we must contrast the writing process with the reading process.

During the writing process, writers imply through their words who they are and how they relate to their intended readers. During the reading process, readers infer what sort of individual or collective entity is writing and how that entity relates to the reader. Readers' inferences often differ from writers' implications.

Discussions of this distinction can draw on ideas from philosophy, communication theory, and literary criticism. General semantics stresses that meaning is in people's minds, not in words. Scholars who were influenced by the philosopher Alfred Korzybski, such as Hayakawa (1978) and Haney (1979), applied this principle to business and other organizational contexts and provided illustrations and activities that appeal to students and executive program participants. The inferred writer and reader also connect well to the concept of shared meaning, as emphasized in contemporary communication theory. In literary studies, the tenets of reader-response criticism, a variety of narrative theory, stress that meaning is not imbedded in utterances and that apprehension of meaning is not an act of extraction (Fish, 1970; Iser, 1974; Slatoff, 1970). Instead, in the reading process, interaction occurs between a reader and the writer, and the reader's participation actualizes the text. Each of these theoretical underpinnings provides new insight into the contrast between implication and inference.

UNDERSTANDING THE IMPLIED WRITER AND READER CONCEPTS

To explain the concepts of implied writers and readers, it is important to emphasize that only writers can define their intentions in creating these representations.

The Implied Writer Concept

The implied writer is the writer's representation of himself or herself in a text. A manager writing to employees, for instance, might try to come across as a firm but fair coach. When writing to a boss, the same manager might want to convey the image of an ambitious, hardworking assistant. When writing to an important client, the very same manager might take on the role of the concerned, conscientious service provider. The implied writer is

   part of our direct experience' of a work and is brought into
   being by the work itself. It is a psychological entity in the
   sense that we cannot help but feel the presence of a teller
   when we are being told something. It is a logical entity in that
   the qualities we ascribe to the work such as style, point of view,
   structure, pattern, narrative mode, and especially tone imply a
   controlling mind. (Slatoff, 1970, p. 107)

These psychological and logical aspects combine to make the implied writer a powerful influence on how readers respond to a text.

To define the concept of an implied writer, instructors can use different metaphors and analogies from different fields:

1. The persona the writer creates through his or her words

2. The voice that the writer wants the reader to imagine speaking his or her words

3. The fictional character that the writer wants the reader to imagine as the writer

4. The writer's portrayal of himself or herself

5. The role that the writer wants to play

6. The image of the writer that he or she hies to create through words

7. The writer's self-disclosure, that is, details about himself or herself shared with the reader

At least one definition may resonate with each student: the terms persona and fictional characters connect with literature, roles with psychology and sociology, image with art, voice with drama and music, and self-disclosure with interpersonal communication.

To provide concrete examples of the implied writer, the best approach is to have people discuss how they represented themselves in their own writing. Students may discuss their own completed course assignments, and executives may share examples of their own workplace documents. The reason this method works best is that only the writer can explain his or her intentions in creating an implied writer and reader. Outsiders can merely speculate about intentions. Therefore, it is best to have writers discuss their own work. For example, a participant in an executive program explained his intentions when he, as manager of a country club, wrote a dunning letter to a member (see Appendix B). The manager wanted to play a helpful role, ensuring that the member whose clues were delinquent could avoid public embarrassment by paying before the treasurer (another member, elected to office) reported delinquencies to the board of directors (also members elected to office). The manager wanted to portray himself as humble, suggesting that the records might be wrong rather than that the member had [ailed to pay. A conscientious but tactful person was the manager's intended image.

It is important to stress that the implied writer is clot equal to the live writer but is one subset of the whole, complex person. To explore how live and implied writers differ in specific examples, students OF program participants can identify, aspects about themselves that they did clot mention or even allude to in their own documents. In the case of the dunning letter, the writer said flint he was concerned because his job performance depended upon his ability to ensure that accounts were paid promptly. Furthermore, it annoyed him when members neglected their financial responsibilities, which he believed occurred all too often. He omitted from the letter these beliefs and feelings.

The Implied Reader Concept

Writers build into their texts not only revelations about themselves but also assumptions about and depictions of their readers. The implied reader is the writer's expression of who the intended reader is. For instance, a manager writing to employees about a problem of theft may try very hard to imply that most employees, including the reader, are honest, but the few who are not create problems. The implied reader in this case is an honest employee who shares with the writer an outrage at others' dishonesty.

Again, it is helpful to provide several ways to understand the concept because different definitions will resonate with different students and practitioners. The following additional definitions of the implied reader can lead to good discussion:

1. The reader(s) to whom flit writer imagines he or she is writing

2. The sum of the qualities that the writer ascribes to intended readers

3. The image of the intended reader as the writer perceives it

4. The fictional character that the writer wants the reader to imagine as himself or herself

5. The writer's portrayal of the reader

6. The rOle that the writer wants the reader to play

7. The image of the reader chat the writer tries to create through words

As with the definition of the implied writer, these definitions seem to appeal to students and business practitioners according to their academic backgrounds, special interests, and favored analogies. The implied reader is not synonymous with the term audience because of critical differences in immediacy, feedback, and cohesiveness in written versus oral discourse (Suchan & Dulek, 1988).

A difficult challenge for most writers is to decide how to portray the implied reader. Suchan and Dulek (1988) decried the overreliance on demographic traits and outlined the more sophisticated types of important information that writers need. Huettman (1996) analyzed professional writers' stereotyping in reader analysis and the compounded difficulty of multiple readers. Thralls et al. (1988) offered a series of hypotheses that, if explored, would provide greater understanding about how writers become aware of and use the concept of the implied reader. More studies are needed to expand our knowledge of this part of the writing process.

To provide concrete examples of the implied reader, students and program participants can explain their intentions in their own written work and identify those words and phrases that reveal their underlying assumptions about readers' knowledge, motivation, and character. In the case of the dunning letter, for instance, the writer said that because it was essential to maintain positive relationships with all club members, he built into the letter the face-saving assumption that a misunderstanding had occurred--that the check had been lost in the mail, misplaced, or misrecorded. He did not believe, however, that this was true in most cases. He motivated the member to resolve the problem quickly by mentioning his assumption that the member would not want to be publicly embarrassed by being mentioned in the treasurer's report.

To illustrate that the implied reader is not the same as the live reader, students and program participants can contrast reader attributes that they mentioned in a particular document with other attributes that they know the live reader to have. The dunning letter, for instance, does not mention that the recipient's account may have been habitually delinquent.

UNDERSTANDING THE INFERRED WRITER AND READER CONCEPTS

Thus far, I have focused on how writers imagine and construct representations of themselves and readers; however; readers may interpret these representations in unexpected, unintended ways. Therefore, it is important to distinguish carefully between the implied writer and reader versus the inferred writer and reader. To define and explain these concepts, we must turn from the writing process to the reading process.

The Inferred Writer Concept

Readers create an inferred writer in their minds as they read. They imagine being talked to by someone. The inferred writer is the reader's perception of the attributes the writer conveys about himself or herself in the text. To help students or practitioners understand the concept, it is good to provide additional definitions, such as the following:

1. The persona the reader perceives through the writer's words

2. The voice that the reader imagines hearing speak the writer's words

3. The fictional character whom the reader envisions writing the words

4. The reader's perception of the writer's portrayal of himself or herself

5. The role that the reader believes that the writer wants to play

6. The image of the writer that the reader sees in his or her mind

7. The reader's understanding of the writer's self-disclosure, that is, details about himself or herself shared with the reader

By providing and discussing multiple ways to understand the concept of the inferred writer, instructors help students and executive program participants each find an appealing route to understanding.

The Inferred Reader Concept

The inferred reader is the reader's perception and interpretation of the attributes the writer conveyed about the reader in the text. Other useful definitions include the following:

1. The person (s) to whom the reader perceives the writer is directing the message

2. The sum of the qualities that the reader believes the writer ascribes to the intended reader(s)

3. The image of the intended reader(s) as the reader understands it in the writer's words

It is important in class discussions to remind students and participants to label their interpretations about representations in someone else's text the inferred writer and inferred reader. Doing so reinforces the general semantics principle that meaning adheres in people's minds, not in the words themselves. Readers' interpretations frequently differ from the writer's intentions. Each is valid, but only within its own sphere of the reading process or the writing process.

Illustrating the Inferred Writer and Reader Concepts

Whereas only writers can explain how they intended to portray themselves and others in their own texts, readers can explain their inferences about any text. To illustrate the concepts of the inferred writer and reader, instructors may use examples written by students or others.

Choosing a document written by a student or executive program participant has value because, after the class members discuss their own interpretations, the writer can reveal his or her intentions. The gulf that often exists between these helps people appreciate the extent to which anyone's intentions can be misconstrued. In an executive program, for instance, participants discussed their understanding of the inferred writer and reader in a memo sent as a follow up to a holiday party invitation (see Appendix C). The general manager who had sent the memo explained that he had hoped to make the party safer by limiting alcohol consumption and by providing transportation for those who had drunk too much to drive home safely. His concern for both the safety of the employees and the company's liability was justified, but he found it challenging to create an implied writer and reader appropriate for the message. Some program participants who read the memo said they would have been offended by the you constructed in the text--a person who might drink and drive irresponsibly. The writer had created a dissonance that led to negative responses because he depicted the implied reader not only as a worthy honoree--someone applauded and recognized for hard work throughout the year--but also as a potential menace. Furthermore, some readers interpreted the inferred writer to be a paternalistic hypocrite--not at all what the writer said he had intended. To follow up on the discussion, each participant rewrote the memo, which was a difficult challenge.

Although student- or participant-written documents work well in such discussions, other types of documents oilier different advantages. Good sources of examples include corporate reports, letters to investors or customers, employee communications, promotional materials, sales letters, and fired-raising appeals. If multiple examples with the same implied writer are available, discussion can focus on how changes in purpose, genre, and context affect the depictions of the writer and readers.

Examples related to a current business issue or historically important business event will engage the class as well as illustrate the importance of the representations of writers and readers in business texts. For instance, after Enron declared bankruptcy, the managing partner and CEO of Andersen, the accounting and auditing firm that had shredded documents to hide its complicity, wrote to its alumni (former professional employees) whose respect was important because many continued to work in the accounting field. In the opening passage (see Appendix D) of the four-page letter, the inferred writer depicts inferred readers as "honorable professionals" and "members of the extended Andersen family." His words reveal his assumptions that former employees take pride in and have empathy for Andersen, and he acknowledges their concern that their own reputations are affected by Andersen's problems. The inferred writer is constructed as a collective we, the whole organization, not just the individual who signed the letter. For a good contemporary account of the context in which this letter was written, see Brown and Dugan (2002).

Students enjoy interpreting inferred readers and writers in documents of well-known or controversial figures. For instance, Martha Stewart's public statement following her conviction promotes lively discussion (see Appendix E). The letter was posted on the homepage of www.marthatalks.com, a Web site she set up to communicate directly with the public about her indictment for conspiracy, obstruction of justice, and securities fraud. This was a novel communication channel in which she provided legal documents and trial updates as well as letters from supporters and opinion pieces from newspapers. The first two paragraphs portray the inferred writer as a responsible, ethical person who is doing "the right thing" by resigning company positions but who remains determined to contribute in an active way to the company she started. In the third paragraph, the inferred writer apologizes without admitting guilt, expresses gratitude to employees, and looks forward to a positive business future. Paragraphs four through six construct the inferred readers, first identified as "friends" in the greeting, and subsequently depicted as supporters who are flooding the mailbox with "uplifting messages." The inferred writer again envisions a future relationship with these friends. Toobin (2004) provided a helpful explanation of the context in which this letter was written.

Examples like those from Andersen's CEO and Martha Stewart lead to valuable discussions. Instructors can ask students to identify what specific words and phrases create the inferred writer and reader. The class can contrast biographical details about the writer with the representation in the text. Such examples also provide an opportunity to explore the relationship between live writers, implied writers, and inferred writers. Someone other than the person who signed a text may have ghostwritten it. Many business texts are collaboratively written and edited. The Andersen and Stewart examples, for instance, were probably collaboratively written by public relations staff, legal counsel, high-level company officers, as well as the persons who signed the letters.

A special teaching opportunity exists when writers' own accounts elucidate how they intended to represent themselves in a text and the writing process they used in preparing a document. One recent example is Enron Vice President Sherron Watkins's narrative (Swartz, 2003) aboUt how she wrote memos to Chairman Kenneth Lay that alerted him to the improper transactions that ultimately led to the company's bankruptcy. She explained, for instance, that in one critical memo, she wanted to come across as "earnest and respectful but a little pushy" to move him to action (Swartz, 2003, p. 287). For a detailed analysis of how Watkins constructs the implied writer and reader in her documents and how these may have affected the Enron situation, see Jameson (2004).

The examples cited thus far have overt representations of writers and readers. More subtle representations exist in policy manuals, handbooks, brochures, announcements, and other documents written in the third person, without the name of any individual, in a straight-forward, unexceptional style that provides few clues to a personality or mind behind the words. Even in a circumstance such as this, however, an implied writer and reader do exist because "the poise of careful neutrality is a state of mind, not an absence of it" (Slatoff, 1970, p. 105). Instructors may illustrate this point with a passage from an employee handbook, such as that shown in Appendix E The discussion of sexual harassment begins with the anonymous, authoritative voice of a distanced implied author, and the passive verb ("will not be tolerated") avoids direct specification of who will take action. In the last paragraph of the passage, however, the pronouns we and you, the imperative verb, and the mention of the associate relations officer create a clearer inferred writer and reader. The inferred reader Is the victim, not the perpetrator of the harassment.

ANALYZING HOW BUSINESS TEXTS MANIFEST IMPLIED/INFERRED WRITERS AND READERS

An analytical method from reader-response narrative theory is particularly helpful in understanding and illustrating the specific ways in which texts manifest implied and inferred writers and readers. Unlike a picture, a text reveals itself gradually, word by word, phrase by phrase, in a dynamic process; perceptions of the implied writer and reader evolve. When Fish (1970) developed the critical approach he called affective stylistics, he said that analysis involved slowing down the reading process and repeatedly posing the question, "What does this sentence do?" not "What does it mean?" He said that

   the value of such a procedure is predicated on the idea of
   meaning as an event, something that is happening between the
   words and in the reader's mind, something not visible to the
   naked eye but which can be made visible. (p. 128)

Though Fish later turned to different critical approaches, the analytical method of affective stylistics and its key question--What does this sentence do?--have great merit when applied to business, technical, and professional discourse. Answering this question helps students discover the words, phrases, and language patterns that cause them, as readers, to infer the writer and reader in a specific way. From this knowledge, they gain insight into the specific rhetorical and linguistic elements that they, as writers, can use to create appropriate implied writers and readers.

Applying the meaning-as-event appRoach to the letter CEO Thomas Jones wrote to Citigroup clients in October 2001 (see Appendix A), we can identify some of the major ways in which business texts manifest writers and readers. I use the combination terms implied/inferred writer and implied/inferred reader because the meaning-as-event method works for either a writer planning a text or a reader interpreting it.

Establishing an Identity

The first indication of the implied/inferred writer's identity is often a name, pronoun, or personal detail. The implied/inferred writer can speak in the first or third person, can be dramatized or not, and can be named or anonymous. Using the meaning-as-event approach, we ask, "What do the sentences in the first paragraph of this letter do?" The first-person singular pronouns I and my, as well as the omission of the company name, signal that this letter is from an individual more than the company as a collective whole. The opening sentence describes his feelings--loss and optimism--balancing them against one another. The second sentence offers a personal detail ("the depth and range of my emotions remain profound") and sets it in the context in which he is writing ("the aftermath of September 11th"). He does not, however, explain the specific purposes of the letter; they arise slowly as each subsequent paragraph unfolds.

Expressing an Opinion or Position

Statements of belief, opinion, or attitude reveal business texts' implied/inferred writers. They may mark opinion or position with such phrases as "I believe that" or "as I told you," or may simply make direct assertions about debatable subjects. In the second paragraph of the Citigroup letter, the implied/inferred writer states his belief about the impact of the terrorist attack: It has unified and bonded the nation. He expresses pride in the generosity and volunteer efforts that resulted. He repeats and extends his optimistic message that courage will "carry us throughout these most trying times." He uses patriotic words--nation, citizen, American--but in a passive sense that sets the stage for his later quotation of Gandhi. The last sentence of the paragraph focuses on the company level when he mentions the increased closeness of the management group as a parallel to the increased unity of the nation.

Conveying Character

Some implied/inferred writers make themselves more visible, distinctive individuals by conveying character or personality traits. Among the ways of doing this are using metaphor, imagery, or allusion; inserting wit or humor; telling anecdotes, especially about oneself: and making other self disclosures. One example of such discourse occurs in the last paragraph of the Citigroup letter. The quotation from Gandhi links the implied/inferred writer to nonviolence as political action, set in the most revered context for that philosophy. The next sentence expands Gandhi's faith in humanity to faith in the cause of "enduring freedom" and then to "faith in the economy and in the markets." The repetition of the word faith three times brings a religions overtone to a commercial message. The choice of such a quotation suggests that the implied writer has a serious, thoughtful personality and an upright character based on commitment to peace, freedom, and nonviolence. In this regard, it is interesting to contrast the implied/inferred writer with the live writer who, as a college student in the 1960s, was involved in violent campus protests and who has continued to express pride in that form of social action (Spiro, 1997).

Acknowledging or Building Relationships

Statements that acknowledge existing relationships, reinforce them, or attempt to build new ones reveal both the implied/inferred writer and implied/inferred reader. Titles after names and direct addresses like "Dear Valued Client" signal internal or external hierarchical relationships. Sentences that request or demand action, such as, "Complete this project by Friday" or "We urge you to vote 'yes' on the proxy initiative," convey power relationships. When we ask, "What does each sentence do?" in the fourth paragraph of the Citigroup letter', we discover a master-servant relationship. Besides repeating that the reader is a valued client, the implied/inferred writer offers "sincerest gratitude" to implied readers and restates "commitment to preserving and growing your financial wealth." He praises employees who have made "numerous sacrifices" for clients and mentions that the relationship has lasted 66 years. The choice of words portrays the implied/inferred writer and his company as the long-time servant of the implied/ inferred reader. In fact, we may infer that one of the purposes of the letter is to reinforce the existing relationship: to retain clients by assuring them that the company has not only survived but is hard at work on behalf >)t7 its clients. Underlying this purpose, though not stated, is the fear that the company will lose clients as the economy and the financial markets suffer.

Talking About the Readers

Implied/inferred writers reveal their narrative counterparts when they attribute qualities to implied/inferred readers or make assumptions about their motivation, values, and goals. In the fourth paragraph, for instance, the implied/inferred writer says, "I offer you my sincerest gratitude for your unwavering commitment to Citigroup Asset Management." The assumption that the implied/inferred reader has an unwavering commitment to the company may be more an expression of hope than of tact. It is a good example of the implied reader's being constructed as an ideal image.

Although the Citigroup letter makes several assumptions about implied/inferred readers, one is especially important. If we ask, "What does this sentence do?" at the end of paragraph three of the Citigroup letter, we find revealed the implied/interred writer's dilemma: He wants to emphasize that the company is guarding the clients' investments, but he hesitates to suggest that clients care more about money than about the human tragedy. He solves this dilemma by writing that "your concern is undoubtedly focused on the healing process and responding to those in need" and then assures readers that meanwhile, Citigroup is protecting their investments. The final words of the letter echo that same assumption, asking implied/inferred readers to rely on Citigroup's financial advice so that they themselves may focus on the greater issues of "restoring yourself, your family, and our great nation."

Encouraging Readers to Take Action

A final example of meaning as an event arises when an expression cues implied/inferred readers how to interact with the text or asks them to take action in response to the text. Is the text ephemeral, something to read and discard? Or does the writer expect the reader to follow the text's instructions, save it for future use, transmit the information to others, of take some other action based on the text? The answer reflects one aspect of the writer-reader relationship. In the last paragraph of the Citigroup letter, the implied/inferred writer makes two requests. First, he asks implied/interred readers to sustain their "faith in the economy and in the markets," an untested assumption that they indeed have such faith at that time. The final sentence of the letter, an imperative, tells implied/inferred readers to welcome the opinions of the company's financial consultants and let them provide financial advice. This is the main point of the letter, the direct request to continue the client relationship. Had it been positioned in the first paragraph, the request would have seemed crass. But after a series of textual events in which the implied/inferred writer established identity, expressed opinion, conveyed character, and reinforced relationships with the implied/inferred reader, the request seems like a natural conclusion.

TEACHING IMPLICATION AND INFERENCE IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

This article has interwoven examples and approaches that business communication instructors can use in teaching the concepts of implied and inferred writers and readers. In this final section, I summarize the pedagogical approach I have used extensively with undergraduate students, graduate students, and practicing managers participating in executive education programs.

1. In class discussion, first focus on writers' implications. Provide a hand-out that summarizes the definitions of live, implied, and inferred readers and writers. Have students or program participants analyze and discuss documents they themselves have written to discover how they created an implied writer and reader. It guest speakers visit, ask them to show documents they have written and explain the self-representation they intended.

2. Then, in class discussion, focus on readers' inferences. Ask students or program participants to interpret the inferred reader and writer in examples written by others. Discuss the range of interpretations. Reading the texts aloud and using the talk-back method Russo (2002) suggested are worthwhile. Speculate about what writers intended or, when possible, have writers explain their intentions and contrast these with readers' interpretations.

3. Make the creation of the implied writer and reader a conscious part of each subsequent assignment. For instance, put a question about the implied writer and reader in the prewriting heuristic, which I call the problem analysis. Appendix G provides a sample assignment and Appendix H its problem analysis. The assignment is appropriate for college students but is easily modified for executive program participants by changing the context to a philanthropic project sponsored by a civic or professional organization to which they belong. Conscious creation of the implied writer and reader can be incorporated into most business communication assignments.

4. Make the interpretation of the inferred writer and reader a conscious part of peer review activities. Have peer reviewers describe their perceptions of the writer and the tone. This information will help writers realize whether their intentions have been misconstrued and, if so, what specific words and phrases need reconsideration.

5. Include the creation of appropriate implied writers and readers in grading criteria and checklists. Appendix 1 shows criteria used with the assignment in Appendix G.

6. Have students write more than one version of an assignment using different implied writers and readers. Appendix J provides a follow-up activity to be used with the assignment in Appendix G. Students and program participants enjoy and learn from writing a contrasting version.

CONCLUSION

The value of the pedagogical approach I have described is twofold. Students and business practitioners learn to be more careful writers who make conscious decisions when they create the implied writer and reader. Equally important, though, students and practitioners learn to be more thoughtful readers who know the differences between implication and inference. This increased appreciation for the difference between the writer's intentions and the reader's interpretations leads to greater understanding that human relationships in business often require withholding judgments and seeking clarifications.

APPENDIX A Citigroup Letter

October 15, 2001 Dear Valued Client:

It is with a deep sense of loss, but also with the certainty of better days ahead, that I write to you in the aftermath of September 11th. A month has passed, and the depth and range of my emotions remain profound. The unfathomable atrocity that occurred that day is sure to be characterized as one of the worst in American history.

As tragic as recent events have been, they have succeeded in unifying us as a people and as a nation, bonding us in common sentiment. The united response, tireless volunteer efforts and the generosity of millions of American citizens are a source of great national pride. The strength of our people and the courage of our convictions will carry us throughout these most trying times. Like the nation, we at Citigroup Asset Management have come closer as a group.

As you may know, Citigroup Asset Management was located at 7 World Trade Center, a building that was destroyed. We are pleased to report that all of our people were evacuated safely and that we remain committed to assisting them through their recovery. On Monday, September 17th, a day that began with two minutes of silence for the victims, our newly relocated portfolio managers returned to the task of managing your financial assets. While your concern is undoubtedly focused on the healing process and responding to those in need, we can assure you that your investments have been well protected and actively managed.

It is with great pride that I commend our dedicated employees who have risen to the occasion, making numerous sacrifices to ensure uninterrupted service to you and our other valued clients. It is in this same spirit of dedication that I offer you my sincerest gratitude for your unwavering commitment to Citigroup Asset Management, sharing with its the challenges and uncertainties following the reopening of the financial markets. We acknowledge this gesture with gratitude and pride, and restate our commitment to preserving and growing your financial wealth in a tradition that dales back more than 66 gears.

Mahatma Gandhi once said, "You must not lose Faith in humanity. Humanity is an ocean; if a few drops of the ocean are dirty, the ocean does not become dirty." It is the faith Gandhi describes that will carry us forward; faith grounded in a common cause, enduring freedom, I ask you also to sustain your faith in the economy and in the markets, as they will certainly test our mettle. Our investment professionals, working with your Financial Consultants, will make every attempt to see that your needs are being met as we forge ahead. Welcome their opinions, utilize their knowledge and allow them to advise you regarding your financial affairs as you focus your concern on restoring yourself, your family, and our great nation.

Warmest Regards, Thomas W. Jones CEO and Chairman of Citigroup Asset Management

APPENDIX B Dunning Letter

Dear Mr. [name]:

While reviewing the status of member accounts for the treasurer, I noticed that your account still has an outstanding balance dating back to your July charges, and we have not received a recent payment.

If our records are in error or should there be a problem with your account which we are not aware of, please contact me or Mary Johnson in the office as soon as possible. The treasurer customarily reviews all accounts by the middle of the month to prepare his report for the Board, and I am sure that you would wish to clear up your account by then.

Sincerely, [name] General Manager

APPENDIX C Holiday Party Memo

[Date] To: All Employees From: [name], General Manager Re: Holiday Party

You have all received the invitation to the Employee Holiday Party, and hopefully you've already signed up to be present.

This event is not only to welcome the holiday season, but to applaud all of you for your hard work throughout the year ... and to have a great evening together!

We don't want any part of the evening spoiled by anyone being involved in mishaps or accidents resulting from too much drinking. Therefore, in an effort to avoid those possibilities, we have taken the following steps to ensure your safety:

* We have instructed our bartenders to stop serving anyone they believe is too intoxicated to have another drink. Please understand this is in your best interest and accept it graciously.

* We will pay for taxi fare to your home if you have had too much to drink and should not be driving.

Please abide by these decisions ... enjoy the party ... don't drink and drive ... come back on Tuesday so we can look forward to welcoming the new year together!

Look forward to seeing you all on the 14th!

APPENDIX D Opening Passage of Andersen Letter

To: All Andersen Alunmi

As honorable professionals who once contributed your efforts and talents in the name of Andersen, you have a significant interest in the events surrounding the collapse of Enron and the questions being raised about our firm. We are grateful that so many of you take pride in our achievements and empathize with our disappointments.

We highly value our relationship with you. We realize that you have a stake in the Andersen reputation, based on your professional association with our firm.

For that reason, we want to take this opportunity to assure you that we are dealing with the issues in a forthright and candid manner and that we are committed to restoring confidence and trust in our firm. We know that these events have impacted our reputation and that it will lake significant effort to repair it.

In this letter, we would like to share with you what we at Andersen are doing to respond. We will recap some recent key developments, share our perspective on these events, and detail the actions we have taken.

We hope you find this letter informative and helpful as valued members of the extended Andersen family.

APPENDIX E Martha Stewart Letter

Dear Friends:

I want you to know that I have resigned from my positions as a Director and Chief Creative officer of Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia--but will retain an ongoing role in this very special Company as Founding Editorial Director. I am taking this action because it is in the best interests of the Company and because I think it's the right thing to do.

Rest assured that in this new capacity I remain fully committed to the Company and its vision. I will continue to provide creative inspiration for new product design and development, author two pending books (Homekeeping and Baking), make editorial contributions to our magazines and television programs, help build public profiles for the Company's core content experts, and provide input on the continuing evolution of the Company and its brands and on strategic issues.

I am heartsick about my personal legal situation--and deeply sorry for the pain and difficulties it has caused all our Company employees. I can never thank my colleagues enough for their spirit, steadfastness, resiliency and dedication. They are an amazing group of talented and hard-working individuals, and I look forward to continuing to collaborate with them on a wide range of creative ideas.

I also particularly want to thank all of our readers, viewers, customers, partners and advertisers for their support and loyalty.

In addition, I am deeply appreciative of your enormous response to this web site, which has logged more than 30 million hits since it was launched last June. I have received nearly 140,000 supportive emails to date--more than 35,000 of which have flooded in just since the verdict was announced on March 5.

I thank you again for your uplifting messages and your caring--and I promise I will continue to do everything I can to help people bring "good things" into their homes and their lives.

Sincerely, Martha Stewart

APPENDIX F Employee Handbook Passage

VII. Standards of Conduct, continued

Sexual Harassment:

New York law makes sexual harassment at work an unfair labor practice. Sexual harassment of the associates at [name of organization] will not be tolerated.

Sexual harassment in the workplace is defined as follows:

   "Any unwelcome conduct or communication of a sexual nature which
   adversely affects a person's employment relationship or working
   environment."

All managers are expected to work actively to maintain a work place free of this problem.

Harassment is unacceptable in all categories and at all levels of associate relations. This means that the following behaviors are grounds for disciplinary action:

1. Abusing the dignity of an associate through insulting or degrading sexual remarks or conduct.

2. Threats, demands, or suggestions that an associate's work status is contingent upon the associate's toleration of sexual advances.

3. Retaliation against associates for complaining about behaviors described above.

If you encounter such abuses from supervisors, fellow workers or members, contact your Associate Relations Officer. In turn, s/he will take necessary action. We want all associates to know that they can work in security and dignity, and are not required to endure insulting, degrading, or exploitative treatment.

APPENDIX G Tutoring Program Assignment

You are the newly elected president of the honorary society for students in your major or college. Members of the honorary society are upper-level students selected on the basis of their outstanding academic records; they rank in the top 10% of the class. Soon after your election, you learned that a problem is facing the organization: members' growing apathy about the organization's main project, a free tutoring service. The tutoring service has been successful for more than 20 years and has led to lots of recognition for the honorary society. Many students seek to use the service, but it cannot function unless more members of the honorary society volunteer to participate.

Write a letter to the members of the honorary society convincing them to volunteer to become tutors. The letter will be sent only to those who have not already volunteered. Use the real honorary society for your college or major. Make up all the specific details you need, e.g., number of members, number of tutoring requests, courses tutored, how to sign up, dates and places, etc. Make the letter lively, persuasive, and attention getting. Focus on creating an appropriate implied writer and implied reader in your letter.

APPENDIX H Problem Analysis for Tutoring Program Assignment

Write out the answers to the following questions and submit them with your letter.

1. Why do you care whether anyone signs up to tutor?

2. Why have your readers not already signed up to tutor? What are the barriers?

3. What reader benefits could you stress? What specific, concrete details would make each reader benefit convincing? The benefits must be realistic, e.g., you cannot offer financial incentives.

4. Describe the implied reader you want to create in your letter; that is, what qualities do you want to ascribe to the readers? What do you want them to think that you think of them? Why?

5. Describe the implied writer you want to create in your letter; that is, how do you want to come across to readers? How do you want readers to envision you when they read the letter? How much distance will there be between you? Why?

6. Discuss how your letter will achieve a balance among the interests of the reader, the writer (you as an individual, the president), and the organization (the honorary society). Which point of view will dominate and why?

APPENDIX I Criteria for Evaluation of Tutoring Program Assignment

Problem Analysis Responses

* Answers questions completely and thoughtfully.

Persuasive Letter to Members

* Establishes a positive reader-writer relationship by creating an appropriate implied writer.

* Makes positive assumptions about the reader. Creates a favorable implied reader.

* Secures attention in the opening. Imagination, creativity used. Message is memorable.

* Stresses benefits to the member. Subordinates the benefits to the writer, the honorary society, and the students being tutored. Is persuasive, not, just informative.

* Substantiates claims of reader benefits with enough vivid, specific, concrete evidence (details, examples, etc.).

* Is also informative, making it clear how to participate. Action is made clear and easy. Logistics, time, place, etc., are explained and presented from the reader's point of view.

* Is adapted to the readers through (a) modifying talking points to suit the reader's concerns, (b) referring to experiences common to members of the honorary society, (c) personalizing, and/of (d) modifying language and style to suit the intended readers.

Entire Assignment

* Uses an appropriate writing style (sentence construction and word choice).

* Has no problems in grammar, usage, punctuation, spelling, or format.

APPENDIX J Follow-Up Activity for Tutoring Program Assignment

Write a second, contrasting letter to illustrate how communication can fail if the implied reader and the implied writer are not wisely selected. Use the same reader benefits and factual details as in your original letter, but change the way they are presented.

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Address correspondence to Daphne A. Jameson, 350 Statler Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853; e-mail: daj2@cornell.edu.