The Job of Police Chief in the State of Illinois.

A comprehensive analysis of the job of Police Chief in the State of Illinois was performed to better understand the types of tasks incumbents in this position perform and the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform those tasks. The analysis was undertaken to gain a better overall

understanding of this job in Illinois and to serve as a springboard for discussions pertaining to a voluntary statewide certification program. As envisioned by the Illinois Association of Chiefs of Police, individuals seeking to become a police chief in Illinois could gain certification by meeting certain criteria. The program, which would be available to applicants on a voluntary basis, would be useful for ensuring that only qualified applicants are selected as police chiefs. In line with results from a prior job analysis study, significant statistical and practical differences were found in the types of tasks performed as a function of police department size. Differences were also found for other demographic variables as a function of department size. Major findings and a summary of the demographic composition of the sample are presented. Possible uses of the resulting data are suggested in the context of a voluntary certification process for police chief candidates.

The present study was conducted in conjunction with the Illinois Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) to analyze the job of Police Chief in the State of Illinois. The purpose of the job analysis was to gain a better understanding of the job of police chief to facilitate the development of a statewide police chief certification program. Rather than a mandatory standard, the certification process would be available on a voluntary basis to those individuals seeking the job of police chief with an Illinois police department.

Once in place, the certification process will be used as a tool for professional development and career enhancement for those wishing to be recognized as the best leadership that law enforcement has to offer. Ultimately, the intent is to develop a program of professional credentialing that will serve as a national model because of its quality, fairness, and job relatedness. Additionally, there are many benefits to candidates deciding to participate in a voluntary certification process, such as recognition, improved job marketability, identification of areas for professional improvement, and as a salary negotiation tool.

Job Analysis Process

The job analysis process provides a foundation on which to base personnel decisions by providing a deeper understanding of a job's behavioral requirements.1 In this case, the job analysis process consisted of three major steps, commencing with personal interviews of a sample of Illinois police chiefs. Second, data obtained from these open-ended interviews were used to develop a job analysis questionnaire (JAQ), consisting of multiple task statements, knowledge areas, skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics. Finally, after collection and analysis of the JAQ data, results were fed back to the IACP's certification committee for review and discussion by a subject matter expert panel.

Job Analysis Interviews

Job analysis interviews were conducted with a sample of nine Illinois police chiefs. Since the result of the interview process would be the development of a JAQ to be administered statewide, effort was made to ensure chiefs in the interview sample differed on certain demographic variables. The effects of gender in the job analysis process, for example, are unclear.2 The gender of job incumbents or of job analysts has been found to influence job analysis ratings in some cases,3 whereas in other cases, no effect has been found.4 Instances where differences were found may have been due to idiosyncrasies unique to each study.5 Regardless, an effort was made to diversify the interview sample. Due to time and cost constraints, it was not possible to personally interview more than nine chiefs. However, within this limited sample, one minority chief, one chief of a university police force, and one female police superintendent (formerly a police chief) were interviewed. Additionally, the interview sample was representative of different size departments; the smallest department had 16 sworn officers, while the largest had 251. The open-ended interview sessions lasted approximately two hours each and were conducted by experienced job analysts.

With the goal of developing a certification process for Illinois police chief candidates, the interviews were directed toward understanding the managerial aspects of the police chief job. A 1993 job analysis6 broadly explored the traditional tasks of police work (e.g., patrol, traffic, investigative, arrest/apprehension, etc.) performed by law enforcement personnel at a variety of ranks, including chief. Results of this analysis indicated that chiefs do perform tasks typically performed by lower ranking personnel, such as issuing traffic citations or collecting evidence at a crime scene. However, the need for this is largely a function of department size. Chiefs of smaller departments tend to perform these tasks more than chiefs of larger departments. While the 1993 job analysis process was useful for gaining broad perspectives about the traditional police activities handled by personnel at multiple police ranks, it was necessary to conduct a more focused analysis of the job of police chief for purposes of developing a statewide certification process.

The intention of the statewide certification process is to facilitate a match between an organization and the most qualified police chief candidate. In order to achieve this match, it necessary to fully understand the requirements of the job and how they may differ in different organizations. Prior analyses focusing on the traditional aspects of police work suggested differences would be found by department size. In addition to replicating the findings of the 1993 analysis, the present study added to prior job analysis information by identifying the administrative responsibilities, leadership requirements, and management functions associated with the job. The present study was also useful for identifying essential knowledge areas, skills, and abilities required by police chiefs. Again, as in past analyses, differences in the managerial aspects of the job of police chief were expected by department size. Collecting job analysis information of this sort is an important first step toward understanding the requirements of the job of police chief in Illinois. Ultimately, this information will be incorporated into the development of a voluntary statewide certification process to help select the most qualified applicant for a job opening as police chief.

Job Analysis Questionnaire Development

According to the Illinois Association of Chiefs of Police, there are over 800 police departments statewide. Unfortunately, it was not feasible to personally interview all police chiefs in the state. A more appropriate alternative is the JAQ, an inexpensive and convenient data collection tool for use with large sample sizes and resource constraints (e.g., time and money).7 A JAQ was developed to solicit data from police chiefs in numbers beyond that afforded by an interview methodology. In its final form, the JAQ consisted of seven sections:

1. demographic information,

2. task/activity statements,

3. knowledge areas,

4. skills,

5. abilities,

6. other personal characteristics, and

7. an open-ended questions/comments section.

Each of these sections is described in more detail.

Demographic Information. After a brief introduction and instructions for completing the JAQ, respondents were asked to provide some basic background information. Table 1 outlines the information requested in this section.

Task Statements. Upon completion of the interview phase, notes were used to develop a job analysis questionnaire. For each interview conducted, a list of tasks, duties/responsibilities; knowledge areas; skills; abilities; and other personal characteristics was created, resulting in a list of several hundred statements. Overlapping items were eliminated, and similar items were integrated into a single item.

Items appearing on a task inventory from a prior job analysis conducted with the IACP were also included on the JAQ used in this study. In large part, statements associated with the following task/ activity clusters were taken from S&A's previously developed task inventory: 1) Arrest, Apprehension and Other Physical Tasks, 2) Investigative and Management of Investigative Functions, 3) Patrol and Management of Patrol Functions, and 4) Traffic. As mentioned, the focus of the current job analysis was on the management functions associated with the job. However, since tasks typically performed by lower ranking personnel are also performed by some chiefs, we included task statements about these job functions as well. Task statements derived from the job analysis interviews and prior job analyses were rationally grouped into 15 task clusters, which are listed in Table 2 in the order they appeared on the JAQ. Altogether, the JAQ used in the present study contained 285 task/activity statements.

Task/activity statements were rated on two five-point scales:

Criticality and Time Spent. Criticality was defined in terms of the consequences of inadequate performance. Thus the anchors for this scale were 1) minimal; 2) not very serious; 3) serious; 4) extremely serious; and 5) disastrous. The anchors for the Time Spent scale were 1) do not do this; 2) a few times per year; 3) a few times per month; 4) a few times per week; and 5) daily.

Knowledge Areas. Broadly defined knowledge areas were included on the JAQ. For instance, instead of identifying and including specific Illinois statutes on the JAQ and asking chiefs to rate each area of law, this knowledge area was left in general terms and phrased as, "Knowledge of the Illinois Compiled Statutes." This was more in line with the overall objective of the JAQ, which was to serve as a springboard for further discussion among the IACP's certification committee members. Twenty-nine knowledge areas appeared on the JAQ (see Table 3 for a listing of all knowledge areas), covering such topic areas as law, accounting and budgeting principles, principles of management and leadership, and various policing functions (i.e., investigations, patrol, traffic, etc.).

Knowledge area statements were also rated on the scales of Criticality and Time Spent, with modifications made to the anchors to make them congruent with the different statement types (i.e., task/activity statements vs. knowledge area statements). Criticality was defined in terms of the degree to which each knowledge area is required for successful performance; thus the anchors were 1) not part of the job; 2) minor requirement; 3) moderate requirement; 4) major requirement; and 5) critical requirement. The anchors for Time Spent were 1) never used; 2) a few times per year; 3) a few times per month; 4) a few times per week; and 5) daily.

Skills and Abilities. While there are conceptual distinctions between skills and abilities8 and how they relate to job behaviors, we were less concerned with differentiating between leadership skills and leadership ability than we were with gauging the overall importance of leadership as a job-related construct. In many ways, our skill statements resembled what are often seen as assessment center dimensions and lend themselves to direct, behavioral observation, or can be inferred from behavioral observation. In contrast, the abilities listed in the JAQ were more nebulous. Despite their abstract nature, however, these themes were repeatedly mentioned during the job analysis interviews in one form or another, testifying to their perceived importance to the job. Although we were aware of the differences between skills and abilities at a theoretical level, ultimately making practical distinctions involves a great deal of judgment. The knowledge areas, skills and abilities appearing on the JAQ might be better thought of, collectively, as job related competencies. As can be seen in Tables 4 and 5, we identified 18 skills and 33 abilities, respectively.

Skill and ability statements were rated in terms of how often they are required on the job. The anchors were 1) never required; 2) seldom required; 3) sometimes required; 4) often required; and 5) always required.

Other Personal Characteristics and Open-Ended Questions. The JAQ also included 15 other personal characteristics or themes, which were identified during the job analysis interviews. All of these statements were generally positive characteristics and were unanimously endorsed as necessary for the job (e.g., "Has a high level of energy" or "Is honest and acts with integrity") and as such did not add much to the analysis. These statements were rated using the same scale as that used for the skill and ability statements. No further discussion of these statements is warranted. The JAQ concluded with an open-ended questions section. Respondents were asked to write down any other tasks they perform, knowledge areas they need to be familiar with and skills, abilities, or personal characteristics required of police chiefs. Finally, respondents were invited to offer any general comments.

Method

Survey Distribution

In December 1996, job analysis questionnaires (JAQs) were sent to 500 Illinois police chiefs, all of whom were members of the Illinois Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP). A total of 122 JAQs were returned to Stanard & Associates (S&A) for processing. The majority of the JAQs were returned within one month (89 of the 122). After preliminary analyses to ascertain the composition of the respondent sample, an attempt was made by the IACP certification committee to solicit more JAQs from chiefs of both smaller departments (less than 10 sworn officers) and larger departments (more than 100 sworn officers). The remainder of the 122 JAQs were returned by April 1997. One respondent was a lieutenant completing the JAQ on behalf of his chief, and one respondent did not complete the demographic section of the JAQ; both cases were excluded from further analysis.

The total usable sample size was 120. Table 6 shows the number of chiefs responding from different sized departments compared to the approximate total number of departments of these sizes in Illinois. Data were obtained from approximately 15% of the police chiefs in Illinois. As can be seen in the table, the percentage of respondents from different sized departments closely parallels the state's population of police chiefs, with the exception of departments with 0-10 sworn officers. Despite efforts to increase this group's representation in the sample, it represents about only about 20% of the sample whereas statewide, over 50% of the police departments are of this size.

Defining Essential Tasks, Knowledge Areas, Skills and Abilities

Respondents rated each task/activity statement and knowledge area in terms of its criticality to the job and the time spent performing the task or using information from the knowledge area. To determine whether a particular task or knowledge area was essential for the position for each respondent, a composite of the Criticality and Time Spent scales was calculated. The Criticality scale was given the weight of 67% of the final composite score, since this component was considered the dominant factor in determining whether a task was essential, important or nonessential. The Time Spent scale was given the weight of 33%, which would distinguish tasks of equal criticality but differing frequencies of occurrence. The range for the composite was 1 to 5, and was calculated by summing each respondent's weighted Criticality response (.67 N Criticality) and weighted Time Spent response (.33 N Time Spent). Tasks with composite values of 3 and above were considered essential for each respondent, and tasks with composite values less than 3 were considered nonessential. This value was chosen to ensure tasks with high criticality but low frequency would be considered essential. For example, if a value of 4 was chosen on the Criticality scale for a task, the lowest value that could be chosen on the Time Spent scale to qualify the task as essential would be a 2; if a value of 3 was chosen on the Criticality scale, the lowest value that could be chosen on the Time Spent scale to qualify the task as essential would be a 3.

The guidelines used to determine whether a task/activity statement or knowledge area was essential, important or nonessential across respondents was:

* Determination of "Essential Functions." If 50% or more of respondents' composite values were 3 or greater, the task was considered an essential function.

* Determination of "Important Functions." If 25% through 49% of respondents' composite values were 3 or greater, the task was considered an important function.

* Determination of "Nonessential Functions." If less than 25% of respondents' composite values were 3 or greater, the task was considered a nonessential function.

The skill and ability statements in the JAQ were rated in terms of Requirement. Those rated as a 3 or greater were considered essential for the job. This value was used to ensure all KSAs having a possibility of being important for the job would be considered essential. The same guidelines used for the task/activity statements and knowledge areas were also used to determine whether the skills and abilities were essential.

Results

Obtaining Group Sizes

Usable data were obtained from 120 Illinois police chiefs. Results from a prior job analysis conducted in conjunction with the Illinois Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) suggested the job functions performed by police chiefs vary as a function of department size. On the job analysis questionnaire (JAQ) respondents indicated the number of sworn officers under their command by circling one of 15 options, ranging from less than 10 to over 500. Data pertaining to this study's sample in Table 6 have been collapsed to match the department size categories provided by the IACP. Data were obtained from chiefs in eight of the 15 JAQ categories. In order to obtain more parsimonious groupings for further analysis based on department size, task/activity statements were entered into a stepwise regression equation with department size as the dependent variable.

The equation resulted in 17 predictors with an adjusted R2 of .71. Based on the regression equation, a composite variable was computed to assess the equation's ability to predict department size (Note: The regression analysis was largely exploratory and conducted only in an attempt to empirically estimate the way data from departments of different sizes in this sample should be consolidated, thus the regression model was not cross validated). The composite variable was analyzed with an ANOVA procedure and demonstrated a good ability to differentiate departments of different sizes based on the task/activities performed in those departments (F = 47.27, df = 7, 100, p [LESS THAN] .001; e2 = .77). The means of the composite variable for departments of different sizes were also examined rationally to assist in obtaining logical groupings.

Based on these analyses, data were combined in the following manner for further analysis. Data from departments with 0-10 sworn officers were analyzed separately, as was the case with data from departments with 11-24 sworn officers. Data from departments with 25-49 officers were combined with data from departments with 50-74 officers. Additionally, data from departments with 75-99, 100-124, 150-199 and 250-299 sworn officers were combined. In summary, further analyses were conducted with respect to groups of four different department sizes; Group 1: 0-10 sworn officers; Group 2: 11-24 sworn officers; Group 3: 25-74 sworn officers; and Group 4: 75-299 sworn officers.

Description of Sample Demographics of the 120 police chiefs completing the job analysis questionnaire, almost all were white (96.6%) and male (98.3%). Other ethnicities in the sample were Native American (.8%), African American (1.7%) and multi- racial (.8%). One respondent did not indicate race.

The vast majority of the respondents in this sample were police chiefs at municipal police departments (see Table 7) and during their law enforcement careers had gained experience in such traditional police activities as patrol, criminal investigation and traffic enforcement (see Table 8). In general, the data suggest that chiefs from Group 2 had the most exposure to the multiple facets of police work prior to becoming a police chief.

Overall, police chiefs in this sample have had close to 24 years of experience as Certified Law Enforcement Officers (see Table 9). While chiefs from Groups 2, 3 and 4 all show similar years of experience, it is worth noting that chiefs from the smallest departments in this sample (Group 1: 0-10 sworn officers) show a markedly lower average level of experience (by about six years). Table 10 shows that overall, individuals in this sample have been chiefs between seven and eight years, with those in Group 4 having been chiefs for a slightly longer period of time. Typically, an individual has been a Certified Law Enforcement Officer for at least as long as he/she has been chief. One respondent in Group 1 indicated he had been acting as chief on a part-time basis without being a Certified Law Enforcement Officer; this person's data is not included in the descriptive statistics in Table 9.

JAQ respondents indicated their age by choosing one of ten age categories (e.g., 41-45); the first age category was 21-25 and the last category was 66+. The means in Table 11 suggests a linear relationship between the age of a police chief and the number of sworn officers under his or her command.

Table 12 outlines the patrol area served by each police chief's department. Looking at the total sample, most (83.3%) departments serve areas that are at least somewhat suburban. Not surprisingly, most larger departments (i.e., Group 4) serve predominantly urban areas. Also, it appears that most mid-size departments (i.e., Groups 2 and 3) serve suburban areas.

In terms of police chief education levels, Tables 13 and 14 show the highest grade achieved before becoming a police chief and the highest grade achieved by chiefs in the sample at the time they responded to the JAQ. Data for this variable were coded in the following manner. Completing high school or obtaining a GED was equivalent to 12 years of education. One through four years of college was equivalent to 13 through 16 years of education, respectively. An Associate's degree was equivalent to 14 years of education. Pursuing a Master's degree was equivalent to 17 or 18 years of education, depending on how many years of the program were completed. Similarly, pursuing a Doctorate was equivalent to 19 or 20 years of education, depending on how many years of the program were completed. From these two tables, it is evident that chiefs in larger departments are generally more educated than their counterparts in smaller departments. Furthermore, it appears that at least a portion of police chiefs do not stop furthering their education once achieving this rank.

Essential Job Functions Associated with the Job of Police Chief in Departments of Different Sizes

As mentioned, task statements were rationally grouped into task clusters (see Table 2). Analyses at the cluster level suggest commonalities across departments of all sizes in terms of what seem to be important parts of the job of police chief. For instance, leadership, communication, and public relations functions are important for chiefs in departments of all sizes, as is working with other agencies. In smaller departments, police chiefs take a more active role in the day-to-day operations of police work. For example, patrol, investigative, arrest and apprehension, traffic, and administrative functions are more essential in small departments, whereas professional activities, budgeting, negotiating, and general management functions were rated more essential in larger departments.

The same pattern was observed at the individual task/activity level; some tasks/activities were equally important across departments of all sizes, while others were more important in only smaller or larger departments. In general, departments of all sizes place great emphasis on certain key leadership activities such as providing guidance to members of the department, serving as a role model by leading by example, treating others with respect and dignity, facilitating teamwork, and clearing the path for others to carry out their duties. On the other hand, meeting periodically with officers for career development does not appear to be an essential leadership task undertaken by Illinois police chiefs in departments of any size. Chiefs in larger departments were more likely than chiefs in smaller departments to explicitly endorse mentoring as an important duty for developing staff and training and education as a means of empowering subordinates. Chiefs in larger departments also found it more important to steer the direction of the department and keep it on track so it is able to meet its goals and objectives.

Conversely, it is more important for chiefs in smaller departments to serve as a knowledgeable resource for officers. With respect to communication, chiefs in all departments espoused the importance of disseminating new information to subordinates and the importance of maintaining honesty in interactions with subordinates. Being able to maintain good relations and clarify issues with local government are also essential functions performed by all Illinois police chiefs. Overall, preparing and delivering speeches to groups of people does not appear to be essential to the job of police chief, although it is somewhat more important for chiefs in larger departments.

Public relations related functions are also important for police chiefs in departments of all sizes. All chiefs found it important to be aware of the type of community the department serves in order to gear services toward that community. Furthermore, all chiefs found it important to personally treat all members of the community fairly and to ensure that members of the department do the same. All chiefs, including those in larger departments, found it important to meet with citizens personally regarding complaints or concerns, although only chiefs in smaller departments reported it essential to personally investigate these complaints or concerns.

It is somewhat surprising to note that, overall, it was not an essential function for chiefs of any department size to gauge the community's satisfaction with the level of service provided by the department. Chiefs from larger departments reported it essential to stay aware of the pulse of the community to be able to forecast needs and foresee problems. Chiefs from departments of all sizes also reported that it was essential they be able to work with other agencies, specifically they noted the importance of cooperating and coordinating activities with other agencies. Tasks revolving around the sharing of resources with other agencies, however, were less essential to police chiefs, which appears to contradict the former finding since one might expect it is necessary to share resources at some level in order to coordinate and cooperate with other agencies.

Only chiefs from departments with less than 10 sworn officers rated tasks pertaining to pursuing and physically apprehending suspects as essential. The only essential arrest and apprehension functions for chiefs from mid-sized departments pertained to using deadly force when necessary. For chiefs in the largest departments, there were no essential arrest or apprehension functions, and essential physical functions were limited to sitting or standing for long periods of time. Additionally, only chiefs from the smallest departments are involved in investigating crimes against persons and property. Investigative responsibilities for chiefs in all other departments are limited to that of internal violations of department policies. Similarly, essential patrol and traffic functions for all chiefs but those in the smallest departments were limited to dealing with hostage or barricade situations, while chiefs from small departments routinely respond to calls, patrol their communities, issue traffic citations, and assist stranded motorists.

With respect to administration, many of the task statements on the JAQ pertained to simple staffing functions, such as reviewing time sheets, preparing work schedules, and reviewing requests for days off or for changes in assignment. Due to the nature of the tasks, the administration task cluster was more important, overall, for chiefs in smaller departments. Despite this, all chiefs found it essential to keep up with written and telephone correspondence, as well to coordinate activities with other members of local governments (e.g., heads of other city departments). No chiefs, including those in smaller departments, rated conducting or supervising roll call activities as essential.

At the task cluster level, professional activities, general management, and budgeting were found to be more important for chiefs in larger Illinois police departments. As before, however, within each cluster some tasks were found to be important for chiefs in departments of all sizes. With respect to professional activities, all chiefs acknowledged the importance of staying current with the professional literature (e.g., professional magazines and relevant research journals) and disseminating key information to staff. Additionally, all chiefs found it essential to maintain a network of contacts for possible assistance in securing resources and all chiefs except those in the smallest departments found it essential to stay involved in professional organizations. Chiefs in larger departments rated it essential to support department involvement in professional organizations. Staying current on issues with the potential to affect bargaining unit relations was also essential for all chiefs except those in the smallest departments.

All chiefs found it essential to manage the department's resources to meet desired goals and objectives and monitor departmental operations to help ensure goals are being met and policies carried out. However, in larger departments, chiefs found it essential to manage the department's resources in the face of competing interests (i.e., with more than one person or department seeking provision of the same resource). Chiefs in larger departments also rated it more essential to push authority down the ranks in order to develop subordinates, including the delegation of sensitive department issues to internal affairs. None of the groups of chiefs in the sample found it essential to write or oversee the writing of grants to acquire funding for various types of projects or training.

Overall, the budgeting function was less important to Illinois police chiefs compared to other areas of responsibility such as leadership and public relations. Regardless, all chiefs found it essential to carry out plans and meet goals within the financial means of the community the department serves. Other essential budgeting functions for all chiefs include making discretionary spending decisions within the department's budget and preparing the department's budget for submission to local government. In terms of tracking department expenditures, all chiefs reported tracking expenses associated with certain accounts, but it was rated noticeably less important to identify trends in expenditure patterns from month to month or year to year. Moreover, it was also rated as less important to identify the reasons behind the trends in expenditure patterns over time.

Media relations functions were rated essential for chiefs in all departments, although these functions took on a more important role in larger departments. Chief involvement in training activities was limited to recognizing training needs within the department and overseeing the general aspects of department training programs and processes. As a task cluster, the project management function was least essential for chiefs with less than 10 sworn officers.

In fact, the only essential project management function for chiefs in this group pertains to conveying the merits of proposed projects to members of local government. In all other departments, chiefs found it essential to be able to manage multiple projects simultaneously, to solicit input and opinions about potential projects from staff, and to obtain enough information to overcome resistance to project-related ideas. As an essential job function, negotiating did not appear to be an essential part of an Illinois police chief's job; however, for chiefs with at least 25 sworn officers, participating in negotiating collective bargaining agreements was an essential function. It should be noted, however, that the Negotiating task cluster on the JAQ was comprised of only two task statements. As a result, conclusions about the role of negotiating in an Illinois police chief's job should be drawn with caution.

Essential Knowledge Areas, Skills and Abilities

With few exceptions, almost all knowledge areas, skills, and abilities were rated essential by all chiefs in the sample. The different knowledge areas included on the JAQ are outlined in Table 3. For chiefs in the smallest Illinois departments, knowledge of collective bargaining agreements covering the department's officers is not an issue, since many of these departments are not unionized. Chiefs in departments in Groups 2, 3 and 4 did not find it essential to be familiar with gang or cult symbols or jargon. All chiefs found it at least important to have knowledge of specific investigative techniques and traffic planning and management techniques. It is somewhat surprising to note that none of the chiefs found it essential to have knowledge of certain key research studies pertaining to police work, such as the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment. This study and the many that followed in its wake are perhaps best known for casting doubt on the assumptions that random patrol activities are the most effective and that it is always necessary to have a quick response time to a call.9

Across departments of all sizes, at least 80% of the police chiefs in the sample found each skill listed in Table 4 to be essential, without exception. With one exception, the same holds true for each ability listed in Table 5. Most likely for the same reason mentioned before (i.e., many smaller departments are not unionized), chiefs from departments with 0- 24 sworn officers found it less essential to be able to maintain effective working relations with collective bargaining units.

Discussion and Conclusions

Some general conclusions can be drawn from the data obtained in this study. Overall, the data suggest the prototypical Illinois police chief is a white male in his forties; has had experience in patrol and investigative activities; has about 20 years of experience as a Certified Law Enforcement Officer, with about seven years of experience as a police chief; and has taken the equivalent of approximately three years of college coursework. Obviously, this does not describe every Illinois police chief, nor is it intended to. While this description does not speak to the quality of a chief's job performance, it does, however, provide a reasonably accurate demographic picture of those holding the job in this state.

Beyond this general demographic picture, the image of an Illinois chief as a government business manager emerges. As an executive in a government agency, a chief's primary responsibilities revolve around acquiring resources for the department so its members are able to perform their job duties and carry out responsibilities. To paraphrase one chief, it is important for chiefs to be able to establish and maintain relationships with local government officials and other constituencies and to skillfully maneuver in a political environment without actually becoming politically involved. Managing these relationships effectively may be vital for achieving greater autonomy within a bureaucratic system, which according to James Q. Wilson,10 is just as valuable as department resources themselves because the former directly impacts the cost of acquiring the latter. Indeed, Wilson goes on to say that, "High autonomy means the agency has a supportive constituency base and a coherent set of tasks that can provide the basis for a strong and widely shared sense of mission."11 Thus, for instance, a chief's mastery of relationship-building and associated skills clearly has implications for the department's, and consequently, the community's success in operating consistently with a community- oriented paradigm of policing.

It appears that while duties and responsibilities may differ to some extent at the task level, there was substantial overlap (among chiefs of different department sizes) in the knowledge areas required and the skills and abilities required to successfully carry out their department's mission. Data were obtained from several departments with over 100 sworn officers, all the way down to the smallest departments (i.e., less than 10 sworn officers). Because of the overall diversity of the sample (in terms of department size, type of patrol area served, etc.), there is reason to believe one would find a substantial amount of overlap in job duties and responsibilities of police chiefs in other states. However, one should be careful about generalizing the results of this study to chiefs presiding over the nation's largest police forces (i.e., those forces with several thousand sworn officers).

Some respondents, through the open-ended comments section, expressed dissatisfaction with the length of the job analysis questionnaire (JAQ) and the amount of time required to complete it. Although it is difficult to say definitively what effect this may have had on response patterns, comments of this sort were not rampant. Indeed, some who shared this opinion returned the questionnaire without completing it, saying they did not have time to participate. On the other hand, several wrote comments indicating their understanding of the importance of such a study for increasing the level of professionalism of the job in Illinois. This viewpoint was also affirmed verbally in several follow-up conversations with various chiefs.

Others expressed concern about the use of the Criticality scale in rating job tasks. This point is well-taken, as it was undoubtedly difficult to see a direct link between certain task statements and the consequences of inadequately performing those tasks. For instance, it is clearly more difficult to rate the task statement, "Use persons/committees as a 'sounding board' for ideas before trying to sell project ideas to local government," using the Criticality scale provided on the JAQ than the task statement, "Mobilize resources from other agencies under emergency conditions." Although the use of the Criticality scale may have been difficult for some respondents and had the potential to affect response patterns, a choice was made to use just one Criticality scale for all task/activity statements in the interest of simplicity.

Overall, the study was useful for gaining a better understanding of the types of duties and responsibilities associated with the job of Police Chief in the State of Illinois. Additionally, key knowledge areas, skills, and abilities were also identified. Although the chiefs in this sample determined it essential to have general knowledge of the patrol and investigative functions in police work, as well as general knowledge of the criminal justice system, one question which remains unanswered as a result of this study is whether this knowledge (and other law enforcement-specific knowledge) must come from direct experience in policing or if it can be acquired after assuming the job of chief.

Some support for the latter contention comes from the fact that while all chiefs found general knowledge of the investigative function to be essential, chiefs in larger departments found it less important to have knowledge of specific investigative techniques, which is consistent with differences in their level of involvement in the day-to-day operations of police work already reported. Moreover, a general trend was observed in the data which suggested professional activities and project management-related functions are more important for chiefs in larger departments. Taken together, these findings raise the possibility that it may not be necessary for a successful chief in a large police organization to have risen up through the ranks in the same or another police agency. At the very least, data obtained in this study will provide a concrete foundation for further discussion of this and other issues among the IACP's voluntary certification committee membership.

Based on the data obtained in this study, several possible components or requirements in a professional credentialing process can be envisioned. A written job knowledge examination might be useful in ascertaining whether a candidate has adequate command of the knowledge areas necessary to be a police chief. Work simulation exercises or an assessment center could be employed to sample the skills and abilities required for successful performance on the job. Structured interview protocols and evaluation guidelines based on critical incidents facing police chiefs could also be developed to augment simulation exercises. Furthermore, it may make sense to focus on, or require, some amount of prior police experience in order to qualify for a chief position in a smaller department. Alternatively, it may make sense to focus on demonstrated managerial experience for a position with a larger agency. Finally, certain educational requirements for positions in departments of various sizes may be warranted. As mentioned, the data in this study suggest a linear relationship between years of education and department size. Further investigation is necessary to determine exactly how more education might be related to successful job performance in larger departments.

A mechanism for certifying police chief candidates has the potential to benefit both the State of Illinois and the candidates themselves. With a certification process in place, Illinois municipalities can have greater confidence in the quality of the applicant pool when looking for a qualified police chief. Candidates for these positions also gain an additional means of differentiating themselves from others in their job search. The job task analysis described in this article is a useful first step towards realizing the implementation of such a voluntary certification process in the State of Illinois.

Notes

1 Cascio, Wayne F. Applied Psychology in Personnel Management, 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992, 188-190.

2 Harvey, Robert J. Job Analysis. In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 2, edited by Marvin D. Dunnette and Leatta M. Hough. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1991, 105.

3 Arvey, Richard D., Emily M. Passino, and John W. Lounsbury. Job Analysis Results as Influenced by Sex of Incumbent and Sex of Analyst. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62: 411-416, 1977; Schmitt, Neal, and Scott A. Cohen. Internal Analyses of Task Ratings by Job Incumbents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 96-104, 1989.

4 Arvey, Richard D., et al. Potential Sources of Bias in Job Analytic Processes. Academy of Management Journal, 25: 618-629, 1982.

5 Arvey, Richard D., et al. Job Analysis Results; Schmitt, Neal, and Scott A. Cohen. Internal Analyses.

6 Allscheid, Steven P. Illinois Association of Chiefs of Police job analysis report for the positions of police officer, detective, sergeant, lieutenant, captain and chief in Illinois police departments composed of 3 to 29 sworn officers. One of 10 reports for the entire statewide job analysis study. Chicago, IL: Stanard & Associates, Inc., 1993.

7 Harvey, Job Analysis, 107.

8 Ibid., 75-79.

9 Goldstein, Herman. Problem-Oriented Policing. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 12-13, 1990.

10 Wilson, James Q. Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It. Basic Books, Inc., 195, 1989.

11 Ibid.

Authors Brian C. Kitzman Stanard & Associates, Inc. 309 West Washington Boulevard Suite 1000 Chicago, Illinois 60606

Brian C. Kitzman is a Vice President with Stanard & Associates, Inc, a firm specializing in personnel selection for public safety organizations. He holds a Ph.D. in Industrial/Organizational Psychology from DePaul University in Chicago.

Steven J. Stanard, Ph.D. Stanard & Associates, Inc. 309 West Washington Boulevard Suite 1000 Chicago, Illinois 60606

Steven J. Stanard is founder and CEO of Stanard & Associates, Inc. Dr. Stanard has worked extensively over the past 20 years with public safety organizations and private corporations nationwide. He holds a Ph.D. in Psychology from the Illinois Institute of Technology.

Table 1. Background Information Requested from JAQ Respondents

* Name

* Agency name

* Telephone number

* Type of agency

* Major areas of experience before becoming a police chief

* Number of years of experience as a certified law enforcement officer

* Number of years as a police chief

* Age

* Sex

* EEOC category

* Type of patrol area served by department

* Number of sworn officers under chief's command

* Highest grade level completed before becoming a police chief

* Highest grade level completed to date
Table 2. Task/Activity Clusters Included on the JAQ

* Leadership (61)

* Management (29)

* Public Relations (15)

* Administration (25)

* Budgeting (12)

* Communications (25)

* Working With Other Agencies (9)

* Arrest, Apprehension and Other Physical Tasks (21)

* Investigative and Management of Investigative Functions (14)

* Negotiation (2)

* Patrol and Management of Patrol Functions (19)

* Traffic (13)

* Training (10)

* Professional Activities (14)

* Project Management (16)

Note: The number in parentheses indicates how many statements comprised the
task/activity cluster.
Table 3. Knowledge Areas Included on the JAQ

* Accounting principles

* Budgeting principles

* Duties and responsibilities associated with other ranks

* Collective bargaining agreements

* All functional areas in policing (e.g., investigations, patrol)

* Patrol function, specifically

* Investigative function, specifically

* Prosecutorial system

* Specific investigative techniques

* Supervisory principles

* Current trends in policing

* How current trends affect department operations

* Understanding of one's own strengths and weaknesses

* Leadership theories

* Management principles

* Prominent police-related research studies

* Organization theory concepts

* How computers can be used to improve department efficiency

* Pending Federal and State legislation affecting law enforcement

* Illinois Compiled Statutes

* Police-related case law

* Changes in the law affecting law enforcement

* Principles of community policing

* How to operate and use a computer

* City or village ordinances

* Traffic planning/management principles

* Procedures for emergencies or unusual events

* Gang and cult symbols and jargon

Note: Phrasings of the knowledge statements in this table have been shortened
due to space constraints.
Table 4. Skills Included on the JAQ

* Verbal Communication Skills

* Nonverbal Communications Skills

* Written Communications Skills

* Listening Skills

* Interpersonal Skills

* Public Speaking Skills

* Decision Making Skills

* Problem Solving Skills

* Political Skills

* Leadership Skills

* Analytical Skills

* Public Relations Skills

* Managerial/Supervisory Skills

* Negotiating Skills

* Administrative Skills

* Communications Skills

* Math Skills

* Persuasion Skills

Note: All skill statements were accompanied by a definition on the JAQ.
Table 5. Abilities Included on the JAQ

* Ability to recognize competing or conflicting interests

* Ability to compromise and to understand when compromise is necessary

* Ability to understand the pros and cons of various alternatives for
decision making

* Ability to understand issues of timing (i.e., understand when it is
appropriate to act)

* Ability to understand how decisions will affect future operations

* Ability to understand how the community's needs affect department
operations

* Ability to plan a sequence of steps for achieving a desired end

* Ability to interpret data or draw general conclusions from available
information

* Ability to understand the politics of local government

* Ability to develop a core group of supporters to help in achieving
department goals

* Ability to deal with outside pressures which may affect job performance

* Ability to maintain effective working relations with constituencies

* Ability to manage conflict between and among constituencies

* Ability to keep confidences between and among constituencies

* Ability to make decisions under severe time and/or resource constraints

* Ability to establish and maintain rapport with others

* Ability to think quickly on feet

* Ability to maintain effective working relations with collective
bargaining units

* Ability to conduct research to address various problems

* Ability to prioritize multiple problems or issues

* Ability to influence people

* Ability to recognize problems or those things requiring attention

* Ability to generate solutions to problems

* Ability to persuade, or sell others on an idea

* Ability to think systemically (i.e., understand how changing part of
the system changes the system)

* Ability to maintain professional relations with other members of the
force

* Ability to be assertive and face opposition

* Ability to establish a climate of trust and loyalty within the
department

* Ability to establish a climate of trust among members of the community

* Ability to recognize and act on the fact that not everyone can be
supervised the same way; ability to understand and act on the fact that
different people respond better to different types of supervision

* Ability to understand where compromise is and is not warranted in
negotiations

* Ability to maintain awareness of image in the community and adjust
accordingly

* Ability to display humility when good for the department or community
Table 6. Number and Size of Departments Responding to Job Analysis
Questionnaire

Department Size       Approx. No.
(No. of Officers Under  n-size  Percent  of Depts.   Percent
Chief's Command)  in sample  of Sample in Illinois  of State

0-10    23   19.2  447   54.4

11-24    45   37.5  253   30.8

25-49    31   25.8  31   3.8

50-74    10   8.3  39   4.7

75-99    5   4.2  20   2.4

100 or More   6   5.0  32   3.9

Total    120   100.0  822   100.0

Source: Illinois Association of Chiefs of Police
Table 7. Type of Agency in which JAQ Respondents Work

Type      Total   Group 1  Group 2
of      Sample 0-10 Sworn Off. 11-24 Sworn Off.
Agency    (n=120)  (n=23)  (n=45)
    n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

Municipal   115  95.8 22  95.7 43  95.6

Township   0  0.0 0  0.0 0  0.0

University/College 3  2.5 1  4.3 1  2.2

Private/Federal  2  1.7 0  0.0 1  2.2

Total    120  100.0 23  100.0 45  100.0

Type     Total   Group 3  Group 4
of     Sample 25-74 Sworn Off. 75-299 Sworn Off.
Agency    (n=120)  (n=41)  (n=11)
    n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

Municipal   115 95.8  39  95.1 11  100.0

Township   0 0.0  0  0.0 0  0.0

University/College 3 2.5  1  2.4 0  0.0

Private/Federal  2 1.7  1  2.4 0  0.0

Total    120 100.0  41  100.0 11  100.0
Table 8. Areas of Police Experience

Area     Total   Group 1  Group 2
of      Sample 0-10 Sworn Off. 11-24 Sworn Off.
Experience    (n=120)  (n=23)  (n=45)
    n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

Patrol   117 97.5  23  100.0  45 100.0

Warrant Service  32 26.7  5  21.7  15 33.3

Civil Processes  13 10.8  4  17.4  7 15.6

Dispatching   46  38.3 9  39.1  21 46.7

Identification  18 15.0  2  8.7  9 20.0

Vice Investigation 22 18.3  2  8.7  5 11.1

Prosecution   13 10.8  1  4.3  7 15.6

Criminal Investigation 96 80.0  17  73.9  40 88.9

Traffic Enforcement 93 77.5  16  69.6  39 86.7

Community Relations 73 60.8  14  60.9  29 64.4

Bailiff/Court Officer 6 5.0  3  13.0  0 0.0

Narcotics Investigation 42 35.0  8  34.8  14 31.1

Evidence and Property
  Control   47 39.2  10  43.5  21 46.7

Other    36 30.0  1  4.3  16 35.6

Area     Total   Group 3  Group 4
of     Sample 25-74 Sworn Off. 75-299 Sworn Off.
Experience    (n=120)  (n=41)  (n=11)
    n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

Patrol   117  97.5 40  97.6 9 81.8

Warrant Service  32  26.7 11  26.8 1 9.1

Civil Processes  13  10.8 1  2.4 1 9.1

Dispatching   46  38.3 14  34.1 2 18.2

Identification  18  15.0 5  12.2 2 18.2

Vice Investigation 22  18.3 8  19.5 7 63.6

Prosecution   13  10.8 4  9.8 1 9.1

Criminal Investigation 96  80.0 32  78.0 7 63.6

Traffic Enforcement 93  77.5 33  80.5 5 45.5

Community Relations 73  60.8 25  61.0 5 45.5

Bailiff/Court Officer 6  5.0 2  4.9 1 9.1

Narcotics Investigation 42  35.0 14  34.1 6 54.5

Evidence and Property
  Control   47  39.2 13  31.7 3 27.3

Other    36  30.0 15  36.6 4 36.4
Table 9. Years of Experience as a Certified Law Enforcement Officer

     Mean  Std. Dev. Min  Max
Group   n-size  (yr/mo)  (yr/mo)  (yr/mo)  (yr/mo)
Total Sample 120  23/8  6/10  2/1  38/4

Group 1: 0-10 Sworn Officers 22 18/7 9/2 2/1 34/0

Group 2: 11-24 Sworn Officers 45 24/3 5/6 10/8 35/5

Group 3: 25-74 Sworn Officers 41 25/1 4/9 14/7 38/4

Group 4: 75-299 Sworn Officers 11 26/1 9/0 2/5 36/0

Note: Group 1 contains data for 22 respondents, since one individual
indicated he acted as chief on a part-time basis without being a Certified
Law Enforcement Officer.
Table 10. Years of Experience as a Chief of Police

     Mean  Std. Dev. Min  Max
Group   n-size  (yr/mo)  (yr/mo)  (yr/mo)  (yr/mo)

Total Sample 120 7/6 6/4 0/2 34/3

Group 1: 0-10 Sworn Officers 23 7/1 6/7 0/7 27/0

Group 2: 11-24 Sworn Officers 45 7/7 5/5 0/9 23/10

Group 3: 25-74 Sworn Officers 41 7/2 6/10 0/2 34/3

Group 4: 75-299 Sworn Officers 11 9/8 7/5 2/5 20/10
Table 11. Age of Police Chiefs

  Total   Group 1  Group 2
  Sample 0-10 Sworn Off. 11-24 Sworn Off.
Age  (n=120)  (n=23)  (n=45)
  n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

21-25 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

26-30 2 1.7 2 8.7 0 0.0

31-35 1 .8 1 4.3 0 0.0

36-40 10 8.3 2 8.7 5 11.1

41-45 27 22.5 6 26.1 12 26.7

46-50 43 35.8 5 21.7 13 28.9

51-55 23 19.2 3 13.0 12 26.7

56-60 11 9.2 3 13.0 3 6.7

61-65 2 1.7 1 4.3 0 0.0

66+ 1 .8 0 0.0 0 0.0

Total 120 100.0 23 100.0 45 100.0

Mean 47.88  46.04  47.56

Std. Dev. 6.63  9.26  5.62

Note: Means and standard deviations were computed by creating a distribution
of ages for Groups 1- 4 using the midpoint of each age category; for the last
age category, the midpoint was coded as 68.
   Total   Group 3  Group 4
   Sample 25-74 Sworn Off. 75-299 Sworn Off.
Age   (n=120)  (n=41)  (n=11)
  n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

21-25 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

26-30 2 1.7 0 0.0 0 0.0

31-35 1 .8 0 0.0 0 0.0

36-40 10 8.3 2 4.9 1 9.1

41-45 27 22.5 7 17.1 2 18.2

46-50 43 35.8 21 51.2 4 36.4

51-55 23 19.2 6 14.6 2 18.2

56-60 11 9.2 4 9.8 1 9.1

61-65 2 1.7 1 2.4 0 0.0

66+ 1 .8 0 0.0 1 9.1

Total 120 100.0 41 100.0 11 100.0

Mean 47.88  48.73  49.82

Std. Dev. 6.63  5.31  8.15

Note: Means and standard deviations were computed by creating a distribution
of ages for Groups 1- 4 using the midpoint of each age category; for the last
age category, the midpoint was coded as 68.
Table 12. Patrol Area Served
     Total   Group 1  Group 2
Patrol    Sample 0-10 Sworn Off. 11-24 Sworn Off.
Area     (n=120)  (n=23)  (n=45)
    n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

Urban    8  6.7 1  4.3 0  0.0

Suburban   67  55.8 6  26.1  26 57.8

Rural    5  4.2  4 17.4  1 2.2

Urban/Suburban  11  9.2  0 0.0  3 6.7

Suburban/Rural  22  18.3  11 47.8  11 24.4

Urban/Rural   5  4.2  1  4.3 3 6.7

Urban/Suburb./Rural 2  1.7  0  0.0 1 2.2

Total    120  100.0  23  100.0 45 100.0

     Total   Group 3  Group 4
Patrol    Sample 25-74 Sworn Off. 75-299 Sworn Off.
Area     (n=120) ( n=41)   (n=11)
    n-size Pct n-size Pct n-size Pct

Urban    8  6.7 1  2.4 6 54.5

Suburban   67  55.8 32  78.0 3 27.3

Rural    5  4.2 0  0.0 0 0.0

Urban/Suburban  11  9.2 6  14.6 2 18.2

Suburban/Rural  22  18.3 0  0.0 0 0.0

Urban/Rural   5  4.2 1  2.4 0 0.0

Urban/Suburb./Rural 2  1.7 1  2.4 0 0.0

Total    120  100.0 41  100.0 11 100.0
Table 13. Highest Grade Achieved Before Becoming a Police Chief

Group    n-size Mean Std. Dev. Min Max
Total Sample  120  15.28 2.12  12 20

Group 1: 0-10 Sworn Officers 23 13.39 1.90 12 18

Group 2: 11-24 Sworn Officers 45 15.24 1.94 12 18

Group 3: 25-74 Sworn Officers 41 16.05 1.83 12 18

Group 4: 75-299 Sworn Officers 11 16.55 1.81 14 20
Table 14. Highest Grade Achieved To Date

Group    n-size Mean Std. Dev. Min Max
Total Sample  120  15.90 2.14  12 20

Group 1: 0-10 Sworn Officers 23 13.48 1.86 12 18

Group 2: 11-24 Sworn Officers 45 15.82 1.93 12 20

Group 3: 25-74 Sworn Officers 41 17.00 1.41 13 19

Group 4: 75-299 Sworn Officers 11 17.18 1.47 15 20