Sustainable shelter: sustainable communities go hand-in-hand with sustainable shelter, says...

ESTABLISHING the co-ordinates for a discussion on the provision of shelter from a sustainable development perspective is no mean task: the concept of sustainable development is so all-embracing. It is not an add-on to existing policy aims, but a fundamental re-orientation. And shelter is a basic

The Brundtland definition of sustainable development is as good a starting point as any, dealing as it does with inter-generational equity in terms of resource endowment, including the biosphere. Sustainable development is therefore about optimising the use of (what are seen to be at the time that decisions are taken) non-renewable or difficult-to-renew resources. This brings in two other related ideas: resource recycling; and the avoidance of pollution and waste, as the latter damage air, water, and land--three basic global resources. But sustainable development is also a long-term concept. This brings with it two further ideas: durability and adaptability. It is not just the initial shelter construction that matters, but its quality and ongoing maintenance and management.

If you go looking for 'sustainable development' using any of the standard internet search engines, you will be provided with a list of 2 million website addresses. Despite this plethora, it is a contested concept. No surprises there: already much shelter provision and use, particularly in the richer countries, is not sustainable if the above definition of conserving the earth's resource base is adhered to. Further, although they use far fewer resources, poorer countries lack the incentives to ensure that their shelter development is sustainable.

But these challenges do not deny that some forms of development are more sustainable than others. The perspective adopted here is therefore to search out the attributes of shelter provision that provide the most sustainable options. It is a start on the road which sees achieving sustainable development as a process. There are already enough existing good ideas and practices to suggest that sustainable shelter development is a realistic ambition. But it will never be reached if it is rejected at the outset as being unattainable.

However, sustainable development is not just an aim in itself, but is a means to an end. As the United Nations Commission on Human Settlements has pointed out, 'sustainable cities are fundamental to social and economic development'. As originally conceived, sustainable development is not just an environmental construct, but includes social and economic dimensions as well. These are particularly pertinent when considering shelter and sustainable development.

Adequate shelter provision is essential to a stable society and a properly functioning economy, both of which are vital preconditions for achieving sustainable development. We have seen that ethnic-cleansers do not just kill people; they destroy dwellings too. At another level, vandalism influences durability. So it is not just the quantity of shelter that matters, but also its quality and longer-term liveability. Shelter provision at the neighbourhood level needs to foster social integration. Sustainable communities go hand-in-hand with sustainable shelter. This is over and above the important consumption role of households, which characteristically account for one third of direct energy use and one quarter of greenhouse gas emissions.

European Union

Sustainable development is a global concept. Despite this, the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in 2002 was notable in that, unlike its counterpart Earth Summit in 1992, no global agreements were proposed or agreed. However, the UN has estimated that in the 1970s the world passed the point when consumption was in balance with the resources available. Now the ecological footprint of mankind is considered to be 30 per cent greater than the capacity of global resources.

One country or one continent behaving in a sustainable manner is insufficient, but it would be a start. Since the Amsterdam Summit in 1997, the Community Treaty has contained a European Union (EU) commitment to promote sustainable development. In 1999 the Helsinki Summit called for a sustainable development strategy, which was adopted in 2001. This calls for 'economically, socially and ecologically sustainable development'. The Lisbon Strategy, adopted in March 2000 and focusing on making the EU more globally competitive, refers to 'sustainable economic growth', although there are also references to social cohesion. The new Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe includes among the EU's objectives 'The Union shall work for the sustainable development of Europe.' The Commission is currently reviewing the effectiveness of the EU's Sustainable Development Strategy.

There are several EU programmes relevant to shelter provision that pursue sustainable development objectives. The contribution of the Structural Funds to sustainable development has been examined and a methodology for assessing programmes has been devised. The urban work of the EU has also focused on sustainable development, a framework for action being devised over five years ago. This includes 24 action points ranging from 'capacity building for sustainable urban development' to 'co-operation against discrimination and social exclusion'.

The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP), agreed in 1999, majored on polycentric development, which is seen as more sustainable than either monocentric development or urban sprawl. This idea is being further developed by work currently being carried out under the auspices of the European Spatial Planning Observatory Network (ESPON). Prior to the adoption of the ESDP, the European Commission work strongly advocated, in a Green Paper on the Urban Environment, the merits of the 'compact city'.

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has also been undertaking a considerable amount of work on sustainable development, much of it related to housing. In its Sustainable Development Strategy adopted in 2001, the Commission identified five key components, all relevant to shelter provision:

* appropriate building technologies linked to ecologically sound design;

* low energy consumption and promotion of renewable energy;

* selective and efficient use of resources and recycling;

* ecological principles to guide settlement development and land use; and

* public participation in the decision-making process.

Land resources

Land is generally considered as a nonrenewable resource, although the Dutch may beg to differ. In fact, sea level rise could lead to land being a diminishing resource--for example, along the Baltic coast (although the sea can also be seen as a resource, albeit a different one). In other countries natural forces are changing the distribution and type of land resources. In the UK the fertile and well-populated south and east are sinking, while the Celtic fringes to the north and west rise.

Given that sustainable development is based on the idea that resources should be carefully husbanded for future generations, optimising the use of land resources is a major ingredient in providing shelter as part of a policy of sustainable development. Shelter is a major user of urban land. Therefore the density of housing and other related development is key to ensuring that land is well used. In general, higher densities are also seen as more visually attractive; providing a greater sense of community; and generating higher levels of social vitality.

The key average density figure seems to be in the region of 35 dwellings per hectare. Obviously uniform residential densities cannot and should not be pursued, as this works against meeting the range of lifestyle choices found in pluralistic societies. Furthermore, residential areas need to contain services such as schools and utilities required in connection with, for example, electricity supply. The land area taken for these shelter-related uses are not so amenable to compression. Thus the total land saved by raising net housing densities tails off sharply as densities rise.

There is also the question of the type of land that is developed. This brings in another key component of sustainable development: besides optimising the use of new resources, recycling is also necessary.

From a shelter perspective, this debate is commonly characterised as 'greenfield' versus 'brownfield' development. While it is obvious that in some places this distinction has been pushed too far and completely unsuitable sites for residential development have been suggested for no other reason than that the land has already been urbanised, policies which favour brown field over greenfield development are now commonplace in pursuing sustainable development. Figures of up to 60 per cent of new shelter development being on brownfield sites have been achieved by strong policy direction. However, to be successful, restrictive policies should have a positive counterpart. Restricting greenfield shelter development needs to be complemented by shelter policies to renovate existing urban neighbourhoods.

However, the suitability of a site for residential development is not the only test to be applied. It is not just the total of land that is used for residential development but its quality as well. In particular, from a sustainable development perspective, land that has natural or landscape value or is important for cultural heritage reasons needs to be safeguarded. Likewise, to be regarded as sustainable development, residential areas have to be located were the risks from natural and man-made disasters are minimised. The potential for more intensive use of the existing residential stock has to be considered, too. This can be achieved through management and fiscal measures, especially to deter housing being left vacant unnecessarily.

Refurbishment versus new build

There is not always a valid choice between refurbishment and new build; obsolescence can be economic and social and not just physical. But again, in the spirit of resources being renewable, if development is to be sustainable, any new-build option needs to be compared very closely with refurbishment. Key questions need to be answered. Does the scheme free up land resources by being more densely developed than the potential use of the site if refurbishment takes place? Will new types of housing be significantly more resource efficient over the lifespan of the development than refurbished dwellings?

One important aspect of sustainable development is continuity. A renewal scheme that minimises social disruption is likely to be more effective from this point of view than redevelopment. The management of the housing stock to ensure its continuing use is also a key issue. For this reason, new settlements are often seen as a sustainable form of development: there is a likelihood of their long-term existence, as well as the fact that sustainable features can be fully incorporated at the outset.

Mixed use

The provision of a mixture of uses, including residential, is seen as a feature of development that helps to make it sustainable. This applies both in terms of single buildings and certainly at the neighbourhood level. Besides contributing to the vitality and viability of an area, mixed use can reduce the need to travel, and can help provide security. However, it is not a carte blanche for successful development, and certain activities are incompatible. This also applies to the mixing of housing types as much as to the mixing of uses; but mixing housing types is essential in terms of helping to foster social inclusion, and hence the long-term stability and sustainability of neighbourhoods.

Also, as an extension of mixed-use development, 'live-work' developments can be effective, particularly with the established trend for more people to work from home. In addition to reducing travel, this may have economic development benefits: Henry Ford, Walt Disney, and the founders of Apple Computer all started their businesses by initially working from home. This type of development is more feasible today as small businesses are generally of a less disruptive nature than in the past. Both mixed-use and live-work developments need flexibility in planning legislation and policy and the abandonment of preconceptions about the undesirability of non-conforming uses.

Movement

To make residential development more sustainable, two aims have to be pursued in parallel: to minimise the need to travel; and to ensure that as much as possible of the necessary travel that remains is undertaken by public transport or by bicycle or on foot. The location of housing, particularly in relation to other uses such as employment, shops, schools, and hospitals, can make a great difference to the amount of travel that takes place and the mode of travel that is used. Neighbourhood design can further enhance these benefits. It is not just a question of trying to minimise travel by car. Complementary measures are needed to make streets more cyclist and pedestrian friendly.

Cycling in particular needs convenient parking facilities and showers at destinations. Pedestrian routes, particularly to schools, need to be safe and secure. Public transport also requires investment to cope with the expected increase in use, and to encourage its use by improving quality. Bus lanes are particularly effective, as is road charging in certain circumstances. Speed restrictions on vehicles directly help a neighbourhood to be more sustainable by favouring pedestrian and cyclist safety.

As has been mentioned, compact cities, polycentric development, and mixed residential and other uses at the neighbourhood level can favour sustainable development by reducing the need to travel by private car. But beyond that, particular forms of development help as well. Defined transport corridors and the concentration of high-density shelter development at transport nodes, linked to these other features of urban form, can be effective in favouring the use of public transport. In the words of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), what is required are 'spatial patterns that enhance accessibility, while reducing exclusive reliance on private car use'. The provision of parking also has a role to play. Besides saving land, the restriction of parking provision discourages the use of private cars. As a half-way house, park-and-ride schemes work effectively, particularly for city centre shopping trips.

Design

The design of shelter and its immediate surroundings can have a strong influence on sustainability. In the UK it has been calculated that enough waste is produced every hour to fill the Albert Hall. Much of this rubbish can be used for combined heat and power plants at the residential neighbourhood level--so called 'micropower' plants.

Water recycling can also be encouraged if housing schemes are designed to store rainwater, which can then be re-used for domestic purposes. The same goes for the recycling of domestic waste.

The orientation of housing can be important in making the best use of heat and light from the sun in colder countries and in keeping housing cooler in warm climates. Combined with design and landscaping, this can significantly reduce the need for heating/air-conditioning. Similarly, personal security can be enhanced by neighbourhood design to minimise unsurveyed streets, footpaths, and open spaces. As has been mentioned, mixed-use developments help by ensuring more activity throughout the day and evening.

Higher construction standards can influence the longevity of shelter. This is particularly so if disaster-resistant standards are enforced--for example, to minimise the destruction of buildings in earthquake zones. Another important area is insulation and generally minimising energy use, either for heating or air-conditioning. Charles Darwin, in the Origin of Species, identified adaptability as a basic survival mechanism; this applies as much to shelter as it does to living creatures. If housing can be made more adaptable, particularly in its internal plan, the chances are that it will suit not only different stages of the family cycle, but also changing lifestyles as well. Resources can be saved if the occupation of the shelter unit can be prolonged before the need for replacement arises.

Tools

Pursuing the goal of providing sustainable shelter requires techniques for evaluating policies and projects and for monitoring progress. Sustainable development assessment/appraisal is now well established and can be applied to residential development. Linked to policies for securing more brownfield site development for shelter, approaches such as the 'sequential test' have been devised, requiring proof that no suitable brownfield sites are available before residential development of greenfield land is agreed.

Calculating the ecological footprint--the notional area of land needed to supply primary energy, materials, and products--is another technique for judging whether or not development is sustainable. The footprint for sustainable development has been calculated as 0.5 hectares per person. Economic instruments can also be used to encourage more sustainable development--for example, road charging. Land value taxation encourages prudent use of land, favours brownfield development, and discourages land hoarding. It is also socially progressive, hard to evade and move offshore, and provides a constant and expanding source of revenue.

Not just green, but mainstream

The importance of shelter being sustainable is that so much human behaviour is related to the type and location of housing that is available. While sustainable development is a global concept, its achievement depends critically on individual behaviour. Therefore public involvement in the formulation and implementation of sustainable shelter policies is essential. Hence the 'think globally, act locally' mantra. However, linked to the decentralisation of political power and action, central support is also needed. Instances exist in the EU Treaty and national legislation. A good example of the latter is section 121 of the Government of Wales Act, 1998, which requires the Welsh National Assembly to 'make a scheme setting out how it proposes, in the exercise of its functions, to promote sustainable development'.

But the wider picture is not universally encouraging. Only two EU countries are on course to meet the Kyoto Protocol targets--reducing 1990 levels of emissions by 8 per cent, by 2010. Sustainable shelter development and improvement are vital to achieving this goal. Global warming has been compared to a weapon of mass destruction. It has been calculated that more people are already killed annually by natural disasters related to climate change than by terrorism. Around 12 billion tons of carbon dioxide can be absorbed naturally by the earth's atmosphere: already twice that amount is being emitted.

Globally, civil engineering works continue to shift more soil than the world's rivers. Urbanisation continues apace. Generally speaking, urban living is more sustainable than the same number of people housed in scattered development. However, the form of new urban development is also important. Polycentric patterns of cities and towns are the most sustainable. But there are too many monocentric examples, particularly the fast-growing global metropolises. It is forecast that by next year there will be 19 cities with a population of 10 million-plus. In this light, the very idea of sustainable development continues to be criticised. Jeremy Seabrook has described it as 'what the rich and powerful can get away with' and has gone on to say that sustainable development is a hoax, because we cannot have it all in terms of high-quality environment and continuing wealth creation.

However, there are some positive signs. 'Smart growth' is being promoted, even in the United States. More widely, 'urban husbandry' is becoming a priority at the local level, particularly in residential neighbourhoods. Furthermore, the costs of achieving sustainable development are well within our means. The Agenda 21 programme, agreed in 1992 at the United Nations Earth Summit, has been costed at one tenth of the world's total arms budgets.

Looking specifically at shelter, there is a recipe available for sustainable housing, and many examples of good practice. Sustainable shelter is crucial because, as the OECD has said, 'progress on global environmental problems cannot be made unless progress occurs at the urban level'. Because economic, social, and technological change continues to alter the impact of cities on the environment, solutions are never permanent. Sustainable development must be mainstream, not just green. At its most comprehensive, sustainable shelter enables its residents to live within their fair share of the world's resources.

Reading list

General publications

* Planning for Sustainable Development: Towards Better Practice. Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, London, 1998

* D. Rudlin and N. Falk: Building the 21st Century Home: the Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood. Architectural Press, London, 1999

* E.W. Soya: Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions. Blackwell, Oxford, 2000 * A.J. Scott (Ed.): Global City Regions: Trends, Theory and Policy. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000

* J. Ravetz: City Region 2020: Integrated Planning for a Sustainable Environment. Earthscan Publications, London, 2000

* M. Wackernaged and W. Rees: Our Ecological Footprint. New Society Publishers, Gabriola island, British Columbia, Canada, 1996

* Sustainable Homing Solutions: Transferring Good Practice from the Margins to the Mainstream. Building and Social Housing Foundation, Coolville, 2002

European publications

* Sustainable Urban Development in the European Union. European Commission, Brussels, 1998

* W. Lafferty: Sustainable Communities In Europe. Earthscan Publications, London, 2001

* Details of the European Commission's consultation on the future of the European Union Sustainable Development Strategy, adopted in 2001, are available on line at http://europa.eu.int/comm/sustainable/pages/consult_en.htm

OECD publications

* Sustainable Urban Development. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 1996

* Innovative Policies for Sustainable Development: the Ecological City. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 1996

* Strategies for Sustainable Development: Practical Guidance for Development Cooperation. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 2001

UN publications

* Implementing the Urban Environment Agenda: Volume 1 of the Environmental Planning and Management Source Book. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, Nairobi, Kenya, 1997

* Living Planet Report 2002. United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland

* Strategy for a Sustainable Quality of Life in Human Settlements in the 21st Century. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, 2001

* 'Sustainable and Liveable Cities'. Ninth Urban and Regional Research Conference, London. United Nations Economic Commission

John Zetter is a Trustee of the TCPA. He works internationally as a consultant.