Improving media decisions in China: a targetability and cost-benefit analysis.
Findings from advertising professional surveys (King, Reid, and Morrison 1997), media analysis (D'Amico 1999), and media planner responses (Stewart and McAuliffe 1988) reveal that an advertising medium's ability to efficiently reach a specific target audience is the single most important criterion
Our study adopts the term "media targetability" (Stewart and McAuliffe 1988) to refer to the ability of an advertising medium to efficiently reach a specific target audience. There are two aspects to the issue: the size and quality of the audience reached, as well as the costs incurred in reaching the audience. We would consider both aspects of the issue in this study.
Among conventional media, magazines are commonly regarded as the medium with the highest targetability (Shimp 2003). The effectiveness of magazines as a medium is enhanced by the plethora of special interest magazines that reach specific market segments defined in terms of readers' demographics (e.g., Men 18+), and increasingly, psychographics (e.g., Homebody) and product usage pattern (Ford Owners) (Abratt and Cowan 1999; D'Amico 1999). With well-defined readers, magazines enable firms to deliver customer-focused ad messages effectively and to ensure that media expenses are efficiently deployed. These two benefits of reaching a well-defined target efficiently (or media targetability) are different, yet closely related. This is because measures for comparing the cost effectiveness of different media vehicles (e.g., CPM [cost per thousand]) are more meaningful when they are calculated within specific segments rather than across an undifferentiated gross market.
By all accounts, China, whose economy has grown faster than any other economies in the world over the past 20 years (World Bank Group 2004), has an extremely vibrant advertising industry. The country's advertising expenditure has grown more than 108-fold in 16 years, exploding from US$134 million in 1987 to $14.5 billion in 2003. The industry is currently employing 871,400 people in 101,800 firms and agencies (Xu 2004). A number of previous studies have examined how consumers perceive advertising copy in China (Aaker and Lee 2001; Hung and Heeler 1999); yet, according to Sin, Ho, and So (2000), no study has investigated media effectiveness in China over the past 20 years. Thus, ensuring that a well-designed ad campaign can be effectively delivered to the targeted segment poses a major challenge to foreign and local firms operating in China.
This study assesses media targetability in China. We pay particular attention to the issues of effective targeting and cost efficiency that are important aspects of a media decision. We focus on examining magazines as compared with other media for a number of reasons. First, as the medium with the highest targetability (Shimp 2003), magazines provide an opportunity for advertisers to target the growing segment of affluent, urban consumers in China, who are the target market for many multinational corporations (MNCs). Second, there is a general lack of valid and reliable readership data for magazines in China. Thus, companies using magazine advertising have to rely on their own past experiences and on guesswork. Finally, with China's proposed regulation to further open up magazine ownership by 2005, magazines are becoming a powerful advertising medium and there is a need for advertisers working in China to become more informed about them.
In attempting to improve media strategy in China, we are fortunate to have access to two major databases, including a survey of 48,000 respondents in 15 major cities in China, and a media cost data set compiled by Zenith. The survey data is used by most agencies working in China, as it is generally recognized as the most comprehensive database on media audiences in the country. Our study serves three objectives. First, it assesses targetability across the country's top three advertising media: television, newspapers, and magazines. We contrast their ability to reach upscale consumers in China based on the audience's sociodemographic characteristics. Second, we contrast their ability to reach status-seeking consumers based on their purchase motives. These constitute the central issues in media-market matching for many local and global firms. Third, we contrast CPM across the media we examined. The media's cost efficiency and targeting effectiveness are also compared to provide implications for the firm's media strategies in China.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINA'S ADVERTISING AND MEDIA INDUSTRIES
Advertising Growth in China
Since China embarked on its modernization plan in 1978, decentralization in the public sector as well as forces in the free market system reinvented the country's advertising industry (Tse, Belk, and Zhou 1989), which underwent phenomenal growth over the next 20 years (Zhou and Belk 1993). According to ACNielsen's survey, the country's advertising costs have grown at the rate of 20% per year, reaching $14.5 billion in 2003, and China is now Asia's largest advertising market (Xu 2004).
Two major forces fuel the country's growth in advertising. The first comes from China's robust economic development. With GDP (gross domestic product) growing annually at more than 9% over the past two decades (World Bank Group 2004), there are more than 100 million families in the three major regional economies of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou (China Statistical Yearbook 2002). These upscale urbanites earned an annual income of more than U.S.$5,000 in 2002 (Tse et al. 2002). Over 90% of this segment possesses all the modern household appliances, and ownership of private cars is growing at an annual rate of over 20% (China Statistical Yearbook 2002; Zhou, Zhou, and Ouyang 2003). Although the percentage of households that can afford modern luxuries is low when compared with developed economies, the absolute size of its upscale urban consumers has turned China into a "king-maker" market (Child and Tse 2001) that foreign and local firms cannot afford to ignore.
The second force shaping China's advertising industry comes from the intense interfirm competition that has been occurring as the country continues to deregulate its markets. While business risks in China are higher than those in developed economies, many MNCs perceive it as being less risky to enter China than to ignore it in their corporate growth plan, given the country's salience in the global economy (Child and Tse 2001). Amidst intense interfirm competition, advertising has become an indispensable tool, not only for MNCs but also for local firms challenging the competitive positions of the former. Indeed, local firms comprise the leading advertisers in China (Rong 2002). P&G's Safeguard (fifth place) and Crest (sixth place) were the only foreign brands that made the top ten most-advertised brands in China in 2002 (Rong 2002). The pressure to advertise has since spread to include (local) state-owned enterprises, whose adspend soared by 41% in 2003, well above the average increase of 28% (Jia 2004). Among the major household appliances (i.e., television, refrigerator, washer, microwave, and air conditioner), local brands own the top three market-share positions in each category. While concurrent marketing strategies such as price differentials, intense distribution, and in-store promotion are important factors underlying the rapid and successful growth of local brands (ACNielsen 2003), the role of advertising in promoting these brands cannot be underestimated. Faced by such intense competition, MNCs are consistently looking for ways to deploy their advertising dollar more effectively and efficiently.
Advertising Media in China
In a country where television viewing is considered the most popular leisure time activity (Wei and Pan 1999) and where television has penetrated almost 100% of urban households (China Statistical Yearbook 2002), television is the medium of choice for reaching the general population. This is reflected in daily reach rates for different media: television reaches 89%, newspapers reaches 72%, and magazines reaches 13% of the population (Zenith Media 2000/2001). The adspend also shows a similar picture: television attracts $8.1 billion (70% of total), newspaper attracts $2.9 billion (26%), magazine attracts $.2 billion (2%), and radio and other minor media attract $.2 billion (2%) (Securities Daily 2002). Although outdoor and billboard advertising are not included in the above figures, they are becoming important media in China, attracting $1.3 billion in adspend in 2001 (Li 2004).
As the country's leading advertising medium, China's television industry is undergoing overlapping changes of increased regionalization, proliferation, and corporatization. First, regional stations supported and managed by regional and municipal governments are growing rapidly. With strong local contacts within China's complex and interlocking networks (Boisot and Child 1999), these stations provide detailed local information in their attempt to capture China's fast-growing advertising pie. They offer an attractive option for firms to target China's urban consumers because China's current buying power rests mostly in the major cities (Cui and Liu 2001). Second, China's national television (CCTV [China Central Television]) is proliferating fast. To capture more diversified audiences before global and regional competitors step in, CCTV has aggressively expanded into special interest channels in sports, business, and international content. Third and most important, CCTV is adapting quickly to market forces and has come up with innovative programs to attract advertisers. Indeed, it launches 15-second time slots to those who cannot afford longer time slots, and since 1993, has auctioned off its prime-time slots annually to willing buyers. In the first years, the annual auction helped turn some firms into instant celebrity brands. The auction is now regarded as a platform for crowning China's latest and future corporate stars (China Economic Times 2003).
Newspapers in China have also grown in ways similar to television stations, although they tend to take on a stronger regional than national flavor. With their competitive advantages in attracting local retail ads, regional newspapers such as Guangzhou Daily have attained strong growth in advertising support, and are dethroning former national leaders such as the People's Daily (Yao 2004). With as many as 96 pages, their voluminous daily issues are in stark contrast to the four-page issues typical of previous decades when thriftiness was promoted. Similarly, newspaper coverage has expanded to include entertainment, sports, business, and job-related sections. These specialized newspapers are increasingly being displaced by special interest magazines, however. Compared with television, China's newspapers are more market-driven. They have been able to quickly increase their printed pages per volume and are more flexible in working with sponsors.
Like television and newspapers, magazines are changing rapidly in China. On the other hand, unlike television and newspapers, people self-select magazines. This makes magazines a highly differentiated medium. Readers, China's top general magazine, has a circulation of 3.9 million, while Shanghai Style, the top fashion magazine, had a circulation of .9 million in 1999 (Zenith Media 2000/2001). By 2002, China had more general and special interest magazines than Hong Kong. While many of them are hastily put together to chase the growing advertising dollar, some are set up to meet the needs of those who are looking for more information and detailed discussions on current and specialized topics.
To date, foreign ownership of China's media is strictly monitored and can only take the form of a joint venture. This policy encourages local media giants to rise to the top. For example, using 2001 as the base year, CCTV, the only national television station in the country, attracted 75% of all television adspend with its 13 channels (China Economic Times 2003). Guangzhou Daily, the top local newspaper from the southern economic hub, attracted 5 % of all newspaper adspend (Yao and Tian 2002). This is a high percentage within the region, as the Guangzhou area attracts about 8% of all newspaper adspend nationwide (Yao 2004). Among magazines, fashion magazines lead the category, attracting 23% of all magazine adspend (Yao and Tian 2002). However, unlike television and newspapers, where local media vehicles have been more successful in attracting advertising dollars, it is the joint-venture fashion magazine Elle that tops the list. Elle attracts 20% of all adspend in fashion magazines despite its low circulation of 300,000, which is less than half that of the most popular fashion magazine, Shanghai Style (with a circulation of 860,000), a local publication (Zenith Media 2000/2001).
MEDIA DECISIONS IN CHINA
Media decisions in China are complicated and confusing to advertisers for several reasons. First, the circulation numbers provided by media operators tend to be unreliable, as it is known that media operators often inflate the numbers to push up the advertising rate. For magazines, the number of printed copies required by the government to calculate value-added tax is more reliable than alternative numbers provided by magazine operators. The number of printed copies may not reflect the actual paid circulation, however, because it is not unusual to find media operators distributing a large proportion of the printed copies free of charge to the public--in airports, restaurants, and hotel lounges--even though the readers of the free copies may not be the intended target readership of the magazine.
Whereas circulation numbers may be inaccurate, information on reader profiles is both difficult to obtain and continuously changing. In contrast to U.S. magazines, where advertising accounts for almost 50% of revenue (Sumner 2001), Chinese magazines rely on subscription revenue as their main source of income (Lu 2002). The scarcity of audience data in China forces advertisers to base their media selection decisions on circulation numbers (Batra 1997). The lack of essential information to optimize media-market matching limits the development of special interest magazines in China as effective media vehicles. At present, magazines account for just 2% of media adspend (Lu 2002). Yet, as the China market continues to grow, the demand for focused advertising vehicles will increase.
Targeting Upscale Consumer Segments
Global brands are known to purposely promote a foreign image when marketing in transitional economies (Alden, Steenkamp, and Batra 1999). This is to enhance the desirability of these brands among local consumers, who tend to associate foreignness with higher perceived quality and social status given the brands' higher price, relative scarcity, and higher prestige (Batra et al. 2000; Steenkamp, Batra, and Alden 2003). Chinese consumers are known to have a strong passion for foreign brands that are used as status symbols (Sklair 1994). This effect is especially strong in status symbol products such as cosmetics and apparel, which have less explicit intrinsic quality cues (Lu 2002; Sin and Yau 2001; Wei and Pan 1999). One reason underlying the consumer's passion for foreign status products is the lack of local icons in China to capture the consumer's imagination (Ger 1999). As a result, foreignness continues to be an important extrinsic criterion for product evaluation, feeding the needs of status-seeking consumers.
While perceived brand foreignness can create brand value and raise the consumer's purchase intentions, this effect is found to be weaker among ethnocentric consumers in both developed and developing economies (Steenkamp, Batra, and Alden 2003). Balabanis et al. (2001) have suggested that consumers with ethnocentric tendencies are likely to be older and less educated, have less income, feel more nationalistic/ patriotic, and are less internationalistic. This consumer orientation is echoed in the results of large-scale consumer polls (Cui and Liu 2001) and specialized segment studies in China (Schmitt 1997). Waiters and Samiee (2003) and Batra and Tse (2003) have emphasized that upscale urban consumers are the prime targets for most MNCs. Given their objective in reaching consumers that are less ethnocentric and therefore more ready to buy foreign brands, MNC executives would be interested in advertising media that appeal to an audience that is younger and better educated, with a higher income and an international outlook. Accordingly, we propose that magazines would have higher targetability than television and newspapers in reaching upscale urbanites in China. In addition, we propose that special interest magazines will have higher targetability than general magazines.
Of the different categories of special interest magazines, we contrast fashion magazines with general magazines and rely on fashion magazines to operationalize the testing of the hypotheses. As noted, fashion magazines have received the highest adspend among all magazines in China (Yao and Tian 2002). Also, as status symbol products such as cosmetics and apparel are often advertised in fashion magazines, the medium constitutes an effective channel for reaching upscale and status-seeking consumers.
H1a: Magazines are more effective than television and newspapers in reaching consumer segments that are younger, better educated, and have higher incomes.
H1b: Fashion magazines are more effective than general magazines in reaching consumer segments that are younger, better educated, and have higher incomes.
Reaching Status-Seeking Targets
China's high level of economic growth has not only increased people's purchasing power; it also supports a culture where styles and tastes become salient social indicators that allow affluent urbanites to mark their identities and to distinguish themselves from those with less cultural capital (Hung, Li, and Belk 2005). Previous studies have shown that young, upwardly mobile women in China are predisposed to a trendy lifestyle (Douek 2001; Hiu et al. 2001; Schmitt 1997) that helps them define their changing roles and social status (Leigh and Gabel 1992). Sin and Yau (2001) elaborated further, suggesting that young female urbanites in China exhibited a "modern" value orientation in that they subscribed to materialistic values and were socially and economically independent. Meanwhile, conspicuous consumption values (Wei and Pan 1999) and an admiration for the lifestyle in developed economies (Batra et al. 2000) have been shown to correlate positively with consumer preference for Western goods.
Because magazines in general and special interest magazines in particular appeal to this segment, the editorials and advertisements therein illustrate the "good life" made possible by imported products and brands that offer a level of comfort and luxurious living beyond the reach of the general public (Hung, Li, and Belk 2005). As a result, trendy consumers who shop for quality and fashionable items usually read upscale special interest magazines (fashion, travel) and advertisements to acquire information on what is "in" (Hiu et al. 2001). Given the psychographic match between magazine audiences and foreign brand targets, we build on the previous hypotheses and propose that:
H2a: Magazines are more effective than television and newspapers in reaching status-seeking consumers.
H2b: Fashion magazines are more effective than general magazines in reaching status-seeking consumers.
Media's Cost Effectiveness
An additional aim of our study is to examine the cost efficiency of media in China. Since few previous works have examined the country's media, there is no strong theoretical or empirical base that allows us to postulate meaningful propositions regarding the cost effectiveness of media in China. We could therefore only infer from professional opinions and a commonly known principle: media as message (McLuhan, Quentin, and Agel 2001).
Chinese local firms tend to place a special emphasis on television advertising (Li 2004). This is because as a channel, television has an audience reach that dominates over other media. Furthermore, the average consumer tends to infer that if a firm advertises on television, the firm must be bigger, and would therefore be more reliable than those that do not. The projection by such proxies, though seemingly irrational, could be based on Chinese consumers making inferences based on the higher costs of advertising on television over advertising on alternative media. Previous research has shown that media vehicles (e.g., television specials such as the Super Bowl versus magazines such as Family Circle) constitute campaign elements that could influence the consumer's perception of campaign costliness (Kirmani and Wright 1989). Furthermore, consumers rely on expensive campaigns to infer high brand quality (Kirmani 1990, 1997). Although this effect is often applied to the advertising of new products, Chinese consumers may be faced with a similar situation in general, as the Chinese marketplace provides few reliable sources of information, consumer rights are minimal (Ho 2001), and counterfeits are common. As discussed, China's CCTV has been auctioning its prime-time slots annually to firms. This further enhances the ability of CCTV to function as a message premium. Accordingly, we propose that television will have a higher CPM than newspapers and magazines.
Regarding the two print media, newspapers in China have a much longer history than magazines. Thus, a consumer may perceive newspapers as having more integrity than magazines based on their "newsworthiness," thereby driving the CPM for newspapers over the CPM for magazines. Hence, we propose two research questions:
RQ1: Is the mean CPM for television higher than the mean CPM for newspapers?
RQ2: Is the mean CPM for newspapers higher than the mean CPM for magazines?
As warned by researchers (Stewart and McAuliffe 1988), general CPM is not a reliable criterion for media decisions. It is more meaningful to compare CPM per target audience reached. Our study compares the CPM of different media vehicles with the income of the audience reached by these vehicles. While we do not have any particular postulates, we expect there will be significant outlier magazines whose cost efficiency will be low, given the proliferation of magazines across region and type.
METHOD
The data were taken from the China National Readership Survey, which involved 48,000 participants aged 15 or older. This survey is conducted annually by CCTV and focuses on the respondents' media and consumption habits. The data we used were collected between 1999 and 2001 in 15 major cities in China. The participants were randomly selected from each city using the probability proportional to size (PPS) method. The interviewers completed half the questionnaire during a face-to-face interview, and the remaining half on a self-administered basis. A small token gift was given to the participants. According to advertising professionals and marketing research firms, the China National Readership Survey is the most comprehensive media behavior survey in China. As expected, the participants were well exposed to the media under investigation (namely, television, general magazines, and some special interest magazines).
There are two sets of measures central to the focus of our paper: socioeconomic measures and purchase motive measures. The socioeconomic measures included age, education, and family income. The purchase motive measure (12 items) was adopted from Taylor Nelson Sofres, which examined the media audience's purchase motives. The responses were made on five-point Likert scales, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The media consumption data (on a comprehensive list of media vehicles) were assessed categorically using yes/no responses.
To obtain the audience profile in each media type, we first selected representative vehicles in each medium using the data from Zenith Media (2000/2001), the largest media research firm in China. The top three television channels in China are CCTV-1, CCTV-6, and CCTV-5, which together reach 96% of the population nationwide. We included in our sample of television viewers participants who had watched one of these channels the previous day. We then selected the eight newspapers with the highest adult readership in China (> 1 million each). As some newspapers are regionally based, we preselected more newspapers than television channels for inclusion to cover the major regions across the country. Our sample of newspaper readers are those participants who had read one of the selected newspapers during the previous day. For magazine readers, we first selected the top magazine vehicle in terms of adult readership in each of eight categories of magazines. The categories included general and special interest magazines (business, in-flight, auto, travel, women's interests, entertainment, and fashion) found in the Zenith Media data set. We then included in our sample of magazine readers those participants who had read one of the selected titles during the past 12 months. (See Table 1 for the newspaper and magazine titles included in this study.)
In addition, we obtained circulation, audience reach, and cost efficiency data for a broader range of media vehicles (Zenith Media 2000/2001). When possible, multiple vehicles were included under each category of magazines. (A list of these additional magazine titles can be found in Table 5.) Unfortunately, the CPM for in-flight magazines was not available.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Audience Targetability and Demographic Profile (H1a, H1b)
We assessed the targetability of magazines versus television and newspapers by first examining the demographic profile of the audience they attract using one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) (for age comparison) and [chi square] cross-tabulations (for education and family income comparison). As hypothesized, we found that magazine readers were younger than television viewers, F(1, 45116) = 3167.09, p < .001, mean = 37.03 versus 46.28, and that a higher percentage of magazine readers belong to higher educational ([chi square]) = 670.98, p < .001) and income groups ([chi square] = 313.72, p < .001) than television viewers. Magazine readers were also younger than newspaper readers, F(1, 39024) = 1804.52, p < .001, mean = 37.03 versus 43.95, and a higher percentage of magazine readers belong to higher educational ([chi square] = 334.68, p < .001) and income groups ([chi square] = 17.06, p < .001) than newspaper readers. These findings confirmed H1a (see Table 1). The profile of survey participants is included in Table 1.
We ran similar tests comparing the readerships of general and fashion magazines (H1b). As hypothesized, we found that fashion magazine readers were younger than general magazine readers, F(1, 15270) = 317.22, p < .001, mean = 32.20 versus 37.03, and that a higher percentage of fashion magazine readers belong to higher educational ([chi square] = 54.61, p < .001) and income groups ([chi square] = 34.12, p < .001) than general magazine readers (see Table 2). The results confirmed H1b, indicating that fashion magazines are more effective than general magazines in targeting consumers that are more upscale.
Audience Targetability and Psychographic Profile (H2a, H2b)
We conducted a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation to identify Chinese consumers' underlying purchase motives. Using eigenvalue (>1) and the Scree test as criteria, we obtained four factors that accounted for 51.77% of the total variance: utilitarian, trend-conscious, conservatism, and personal taste. The four-factor structure yielded acceptable goodness-of-fit statistics in confirmatory factor analysis, [chi square] = 910.097, df = 48, GFI (goodness-of-fit index) = .981, CFI (comparative fit index) = .904, RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) = .048. We have noted that the nonlocal positioning of foreign consumer goods in China appeals to the status-seeker's desire to be cosmopolitan, trendy, and sophisticated. Thus, participants who score high mean values on trend-conscious and personal taste would be more likely to engage in status-seeking consumption, whereas participants who score high mean values on utilitarian and conservatism would be more likely to refrain from engaging in status-seeking consumption.
We conducted a series of MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) using the obtained factor scores as dependent variables and media exposure as the independent variables. Results showed significant differences between the audiences of television and magazines, F(4, 14157) = 80.19, p < .001, with the latter scoring higher mean values on trend-conscious (p < .001) and personal taste (p < .001), and lower mean values on utilitarian (p < .001) and conservatism (p < .001). We ran similar tests comparing the audiences of newspaper and magazines; these results also showed significant differences, F(4, 12078) = 29.43, p < .001, with the latter scoring higher mean values on trend-conscious (p < .001) and personal taste (p < .01), and lower mean values on utilitarian (p < .001) and conservatism (p < .001). These findings confirmed H2a (see Table 3).
While there were statistically significant differences across all hypothesized paired comparisons, the magnitude of mean value differences was quite small. We speculate that one reason the psychographic profiles are not as highly differentiated in China is because, similar to television, there are often free copies of print media available. As we mentioned previously, in China there are free copies of magazines distributed in hotel and airport lounges. In addition, work units in China often display newspapers on billboards for workers to read. These practices could render it more difficult for media vehicles in China to develop into tools aimed at reaching distinct targets.
We then tested H2b, comparing general and fashion magazines. Results of MANOVA showed significant differences, F(4, 4523) = 18.62, p < .001, with the readers of fashion magazines scoring higher mean values on trend-conscious (p < .001) and personal taste (p < .05), and lower mean values on utilitarian (p < .001) and conservatism (p < .001) than general magazines. These findings confirmed H2b (see Table 4).
Other Observations
In addition to reporting the findings directly related to hypothesis testing, we also examined the profile of readers that different magazines in China appear to target. As indicated in Table 2, general and special interest magazines attract different consumer segments. Whereas general magazines by definition appeal to a broader audience, they are indeed attracting a younger (age = 37.03), higher-income (5% mean with income RMB60,000 or above), and better-educated consumer segment (12.4% college degree or above) than women's interests magazines and entertainment magazines, whose audience profiles are more consistent with the profile of the general population on these dimensions (age mean = 45.65, 3.1% with income RMB60,000 or above, 7.2% college degree or above; see Table 1). Among the remaining special interest magazines, in-flight, business, and travel magazines reach the most upscale segment in terms of income (over 10% with income RMB60,000 or above) and education (college degree or above: travel, 13.8%; in-flight, 19.7%). Meanwhile, although the readers of fashion magazines have attained a level of education (13.3% college or above) similar to that of in-flight, business, and travel magazines, these readers earn a lower income. The difference in income can be attributed to the age of fashion magazine readers, who are younger than the readers of alternative magazines (age = 32.2 versus 38.19 to 39.95).
In terms of the audience's psychographic profile, results of ANOVA and Tukey B tests showed significant differences on the dimensions of utilitarian and conservatism (p < .001), but no significant differences on trend-conscious or personal taste (p > .05). Of the two statistically significant factors, utilitarian is more discriminating, creating four magazine groupings, whereas conservatism created two magazine groupings among the eight categories of magazines. Specifically, in-flight and fashion magazines reach the least utilitarian readership, whereas health-care and business magazines reach the most utilitarian readership. Thus, although fashion magazine readers earn less, they share similar buying motives with in-flight magazine readers, who are among the top income earners. Indeed, fashion and in-flight magazine readers also belong to the less conservative group and are the least conservative among magazine readers. It is interesting to note that business magazine readers are among the most utilitarian and conservative. Meanwhile, general, women's interests, and entertainment magazines that appeal to the "average" audience demographically receive cross-loading on multiple utilitarian groups. Thus, these magazines appear to cut across different psychographic segments.
Anthropological research has suggested that similar to window shopping, magazine reading has become a form of aspirational consumption in consumerist societies, where a broader range of consumers reads about newly arrived commodities and designer products, participating in "imagined cosmopolitanism" (Schein 2001). Thus, fashion magazines in China may be attracting "aspirational consumers," in addition to consumers who are reading the magazines for consumer information.
Media's Cost Effectiveness (RQ1, RQ2)
We assessed the cost efficiency of television, newspapers, and magazines in terms of their mean CPM scores. Results indicated that contrary to our hypotheses, television has the lowest mean CPM score (18) (i.e., the most cost efficient), followed by newspapers (24) and magazines (54) (see Table 3). These findings suggest that in terms of the number of consumers reached, television provides the best cost efficiency, whereas magazines provide the least cost efficiency. Thus, the extent of media reach may be more important than the media's apparent campaign costliness (television) or "newsworthiness" (newspaper) in determining the cost efficiency of media in China. As we have noted, however, it is more meaningful to compare the cost effectiveness of different media within specific segments than across an undifferentiated audience, a point we shall return to below.
While RQ1 and RQ2 relate cost efficiency to different media class, Tables 5 and 6 reveal that there are considerable differences in the vehicle's CPM within each media class or within each category of magazines. For example, the CPM for general magazines ranges from 18 to 136, whereas the CPM for entertainment magazines and fashion magazines ranges from 43 to 214 and from 60 to 294, respectively (see Table 6). Given these substantial within-class, within-category differences, we provided an additional investigation, contrasting the cost efficiency of media vehicles and their effective targeting of a selected segment, upscale consumers.
We contrasted each media vehicle's CPM with the media vehicle's target effectiveness in Figure 1. The media vehicle's target effectiveness is measured in terms of the average household income reached. While in general the figure showed a positive relation between a vehicle's CPM and its target effectiveness, one general magazine (Window of the South) and one fashion magazine (Elle) appear to be outliers, with general magazines being especially cost-effective and fashion magazines being especially cost-ineffective.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Conclusions
This study investigated the targeting effectiveness and cost efficiency of the major media of television, newspapers, and magazines in China. Findings of the study confirmed that relative to television and newspapers, magazines are effective vehicles for reaching upscale (H1a) and status-seeking targets (H2a) that are important to advertisers with an upscale or foreign positioning. Among magazines, targeting effectiveness is especially strong for the fashion magazines that we used as prototypes of special interest magazines (H1b, H2b). The study also revealed that in-flight, business, and travel magazines attract upscale consumers, whereas in-flight and fashion magazines attract status-seeking consumers. These findings show that in spite of the short time since magazines resurfaced in China, they have developed into effective targeting tools. More important, the findings suggest that it is as important for advertisers in China as it is for advertisers in developed economies to use multiple indicators to profile media audiences, as demographic or psychographic information alone provides only partial information.
This study also related CPM to the media's ability to target different income groups. As such, it is an important step toward providing better accountability for media in China. Figure 1 revealed a general positive relation between the media's CPM and the income group they target. Thus, in spite of the premium of television advertising (RQ1) and the newsworthiness of newspapers (RQ2), these mass-market media are reaching lower-income consumers on average and have a lower CPM. Special interest magazines, on the other hand, are reaching higher-income consumers and have a higher CPM. The finding suggests that the audience segment reached is a better determinant of a media vehicle's CPM and cost efficiency.
There were a few outliers that are of interest. The magazine Window of the South has the second highest CPM among general magazines (see Table 6). As the magazine attracts higher-income consumers in the southern economic hub, however, it provides very good value to advertisers in spite of its higher CPM in the category. Meanwhile, the fashion magazine Elle appears to be charging a higher price relative to the income group it appeals to. As a magazine with substantial brand equity in the fashion world, advertisers are willing to pay a price premium to associate their products with the image of prestige that Elle offers. Thus, while the advertising premium or newsworthiness that we formerly proposed (RQ1, RQ2) do not have significant explanatory power, the impact of qualitative considerations such as the image desired by advertisers (e.g., Elle) or geographic reach (e.g., Window of the South are issues that future research could delineate to help improve our understanding of media targetability in China.
The findings are very positive for the media market in China. Despite the lack of readily available consumer profile information and general confusion in the marketplace, media vehicles in China are providing reasonable targetability and cost efficiency. With entry into the WTO (World Trade Organization) and the expected relaxation of foreign magazine ownership laws by 2005, foreign media operators may find it highly profitable to launch magazines in the country, as MNCs are investing millions of dollars in advertising in China annually. Indeed, many general (e.g., Time) and special interest magazines (e.g., Business Week) are anxiously preparing to launch in China, if they have not yet done so. Media operators in China should go beyond circulation figures and indicate to advertisers their vehicle's specific reach to allow advertisers to capitalize on the growing fragmentation in the China market. In addition, there is a need for syndicated services that provide reliable information on the consumer's media profile, given the growing sophistication of the Chinese market.
Limitations
There are a number of limitations to this study that we wish to acknowledge. First, nonlocals cannot conduct surveys in China unless they do so in joint venture with a local partner. Thus, we relied on secondary data in this investigation, which limited our ability to design our own questionnaire and examine the constructs (e.g., dimensions of purchase motives) of interests, as well as our ability to decide on the scales (e.g., intervallic scale for age) to use in the study. It was also more difficult for us to exert control over the research process and ensure the quality of the data. Second, despite the breadth of data available, the data lacks details, which limited the type of analysis we could conduct. For example, the media consumption data was collected on a yes/no basis. Although this approach simplifies the tasks for the participants, data that described in more detail the extent of their media consumption habits could indicate more clearly the effects of specific media. Similarly, the magazines were classified under broad categories. Given the substantial difference in CPM within a magazine category, the categorization may be misleading where specific titles are concerned. More detailed categories based on the coding of vehicle content would reduce the bias imposed by broad classification schemes, and at the same time, allow us to investigate the effects of media content on consumer responses where the current study shows associative relations only. Finally, whereas the analysis in this study showed significant statistical differences in media audiences' purchase motives, the differences in mean values are small. Thus, the media audience may not hold strong opinions one way or another, which could limit the managerial implications of the research findings.
TABLE 1
Audiences of Multiple Media: Demographics
Whole sample Television (a)
Demographics (n = 48,961) (n = 32,702)
Age * 45.65 46.28
Sex (male) ** 47.8% 52.0%
Household income (RMB) **
0-23,999 70.9% 70.7%
24,000-59,999 26.0% 26.1%
[greater than or equal to] 60,000 3.1% 3.2%
Marital status **
Single 15.2% 13.7%
Married 75.9% 78.5%
Divorced/widowed 8.8% 7.8%
Education **
High school or below 78.1% 74.9%
Some college 14.7% 16.5%
College or above 7.2% 8.6%
Newspaper (b) Magazine (c)
Demographics (n = 26,610) (n = 15,956)
Age * 43.95 38.86
Sex (male) ** 53.8% 40.9%
Household income (RMB) **
0-23,999 61.4% 62.2%
24,000-59,999 34.6% 32.9%
[greater than or equal to] 60,000 4.0% 4.9%
Marital status **
Single 16.7% 20.5%
Married 77.8% 75.5%
Divorced/widowed 6.5% 4.0%
Education **
High school or below 71.7% 66.3%
Some college 18.4% 22.9%
College or above 9.8% 10.8%
(a) Based on television viewers who had watched at least one of
CCTV-1, CCTV-5, or CCTV-6 (China Central Television channels)
the previous day. These channels have the highest share of
viewing (Zenith Media 2000/2001). Overlaps are deleted.
(b) Based on readers who on the previous day had read at least
one of the following: Reference News, People's Daily, Xinming
Evening News, Guangzhou Daily, Yangcheng Evening News, Beijing
Evening News, Jin wanbao, or Yangzi Evening News. These
newspapers have the highest adult readership at over one
million (Zenith Media 2000/2001). Overlaps are deleted.
(c) Based on readers who in the last twelve months had read at
least one of the following: Readers, Securities Market Weekly,
CAAC, Auto Fan, China Tourism, Love, Dazhong dianyin, or Shanghai
Style. These magazines have the highest adult readership in their
respective categories: general interest, business, in-flight,
auto, travel, women's interest, entertainment, and fashion
(Zenith Media 2000/2001). Overlaps are deleted.
* ANOVA (analysis of variance) F value is significant
at p < .001.
** Pearson [chi square] value is significant at p < .001.
TABLE 2
Readership for Categories of Magazines: Demographics
Women's
General interest
Demographics (n = 12,416) (n = 4,532)
Age 37.03 33.61
Sex (male) 42.5% 28.2%
Household income (RMB)
0-23,999 61.5% 63.3%
24,000-59,999 33.5% 31.9%
[greater than or equal to] 60,000 5.0% 4.8%
Marital status
Single 25.1% 31.6%
Married 70.9% 65.4%
Divorced/widowed 3.9% 2.8%
Education
High school or below 62.6% 65.9%
Some college 25.0% 25.5%
College or above 12.4% 8.6%
Entertainment Business
Demographics (n = 2,832) (n = 419)
Age 38.92 39.95
Sex (male) 40.7% 59.2%
Household income (RMB)
0-23,999 62.0% 50.1%
24,000-59,999 34.2% 38.2%
[greater than or equal to] 60,000 3.8% 11.7%
Marital status
Single 23.1% 13.8%
Married 73.4% 81.8%
Divorced/widowed 3.3% 4.3%
Education
High school or below 68.7% 55.3%
Some college 22.1% 29.8%
College or above 9.2% 14.9%
In-flight Travel
Demographics (n = 280) (n = 95)
Age 38.31 38.19
Sex (male) 61.6% 46.3%
Household income (RMB)
0-23,999 45.7% 50.0%
24,000-59,999 43.6% 38.1%
[greater than or equal to] 60,000 10.7% 11.9%
Marital status
Single 22.5% 25.3%
Married 73.6% 70.6%
Divorced/widowed 3.9% 4.2%
Education
High school or below 46.6% 53.2%
Some college 33.7% 33.0%
College or above 19.7% 13.8%
Auto Fashion
Demographics (n = 542) (n = 2,856)
Age 33.60 32.2
Sex (male) 78.2% 23.4%
Household income (RMB)
0-23,999 62.3% 55.2%
24,000-59,999 32.2% 38.7%
[greater than or equal to] 60,000 5.5% 6.1%
Marital status
Single 32.1% 37.1%
Married 66.4% 59.6%
Divorced/widowed 1.3% 3.2%
Education
High school or below 62.3% 55.5%
Some college 32.2% 31.2%
College or above 5.5% 13.3%
Note: Based on readers who had read at least one of the magazines
(see Table 5) with the highest adult readership in each category
(according to Zenith Media 2000/2001).
TABLE 3
Audiences of Multiple Media: Psychographics
Attitude items Whole sample Television
Utilitarian
As long as the things at home are
still usable, I won't consider
buying a replacement. 3.76 (.98) 3.78 (.97)
Although I like a product, I'll
buy it only after considering
its usefulness. 3.74 (.94) 3.76 (.93)
Utility is much more important than
appearance in daily necessities. 3.48 (1.05) 3.50 (1.06)
Products I buy should wear well. 4.07 (.87) 4.08 (.86)
Mean * 3.76 (.66) 3.78 (.66)
Trend conscious
I'd like to try newly introduced
high-tech products. 2.95 (1.01) 2.95 (1.01)
I pay attention to annual market-share
reports for many products. 2.84 (1.01) 2.88 (1.00)
I'd better have what others have. 2.98 (1.08) 2.97 (1.08)
I'll buy products that have been
advertised. 3.15 (1.05) 3.15 (1.05)
Mean * 2.98 (.63) 2.99 (.63)
Conservatism
I only buy products I've tried before. 3.97 (.88) 3.99 (.87)
I don't try new products easily. 3.69 (1.07) 3.73 (1.05)
Mean * 3.83 (.80) 3.86 (.80)
Personal taste
I never buy something that does
not suit my taste, even if it may
be a real bargain. 3.93 (.90) 3.95 (.89)
It's not advisable to compromise
when shopping. 3.70 (.90) 3.73 (.90)
Mean * 3.81 (.72) 3.84 (.71)
Attitude items Newspaper Magazine
Utilitarian
As long as the things at home are
still usable, I won't consider
buying a replacement. 3.67 (1.00) 3.54 (1.04)
Although I like a product, I'll
buy it only after considering
its usefulness. 3.69 (.96) 3.66 (.98)
Utility is much more important than
appearance in daily necessities. 3.45 (1.06) 3.33 (1.11)
Products I buy should wear well. 4.03 (.89) 3.98 (.92)
Mean * 3.71 (.66) 3.63 (.68)
Trend conscious
I'd like to try newly introduced
high-tech products. 2.98 (1.01) 3.01 (1.01)
I pay attention to annual market-share
reports for many products. 2.84 (1.03) 2.86 (1.02)
I'd better have what others have. 2.95 (1.07) 2.94 (1.07)
I'll buy products that have been
advertised. 3.23 (1.05) 3.36 (1.02)
Mean * 3.00 (.63) 3.04 (.61)
Conservatism
I only buy products I've tried before. 3.96 (.91) 3.93 (.95)
I don't try new products easily. 3.62 (1.10) 3.58 (1.11)
Mean * 3.79 (.83) 3.76 (.85)
Personal taste
I never buy something that does
not suit my taste, even if it may
be a real bargain. 3.98 (.90) 3.99 (.90)
It's not advisable to compromise
when shopping. 3.73 (.91) 3.80 (.90)
Mean * 3.85 (.71) 3.89 (.71)
Notes: Mean scores are displayed and anchored by 1 (strongly
disagree) and 5 (strongly agree). Standard deviations are in
parentheses. For sample information, please refer to notes
in Table 1.
* ANOVA (analysis of variance) F value is significant at p < .001.
TABLE 4
Readership for Categories of Magazines: Psychographics
Women's
Attitude items General interest Entertainment
Utilitarian
As long as the things
at home are still
usable, I won't
consider buying a
replacement. 3.49 3.43 3.48
Although I like a
product, I'll buy it only
after considering its
usefulness. 3.61 3.60 3.65
Utility is much more
important than
appearance in daily
necessities. 3.31 3.23 3.30
Products I buy
should wear well. 3.95 3.87 3.94
Mean * 3.59 3.54 3.59
Trend conscious
I'd like to try newly
introduced high-tech
products. 3.03 3.06 2.96
I pay attention to
annual market-share
reports for many
products. 2.85 2.86 2.83
I'd better have what
others have. 2.93 2.95 2.93
I'll buy products that
have been advertised. 3.39 3.52 3.50
Mean * 3.05 3.10 3.05
Conservatism
I only buy products
I've tried before. 3.90 3.88 3.92
I don't try new
products easily. 3.54 3.49 3.57
Mean * 3.72 3.68 3.75
Personal taste
I never buy something
if it does not suit
my taste, even if it
may be a real bargain. 3.98 3.98 3.99
It's not advisable to
compromise when
shopping. 3.80 3.85 3.81
Mean * 3.89 3.91 3.90
Attitude items Business In-flight Travel
Utilitarian
As long as the things
at home are still
usable, I won't
consider buying a
replacement. 3.54 3.38 3.34
Although I like a
product, I'll buy it only
after considering its
usefulness. 3.64 3.43 3.60
Utility is much more
important than
appearance in daily
necessities. 3.37 3.03 3.11
Products I buy
should wear well. 3.98 3.73 3.73
Mean * 3.64 3.39 3.44
Trend conscious
I'd like to try newly
introduced high-tech
products. 3.10 3.16 3.04
I pay attention to
annual market-share
reports for many
products. 3.03 2.83 2.81
I'd better have what
others have. 2.99 3.04 3.03
I'll buy products that
have been advertised. 3.38 3.38 3.40
Mean * 3.13 3.10 3.07
Conservatism
I only buy products
I've tried before. 3.95 3.64 4.00
I don't try new
products easily. 3.60 3.51 3.63
Mean * 3.78 3.57 3.82
Personal taste
I never buy something
if it does not suit
my taste, even if it
may be a real bargain. 4.00 3.99 3.98
It's not advisable to
compromise when
shopping. 3.78 3.74 3.86
Mean * 3.88 3.85 3.92
Attitude items Fashion Auto
Utilitarian
As long as the things
at home are still
usable, I won't
consider buying a
replacement. 3.27 3.34
Although I like a
product, I'll buy it only
after considering its
usefulness. 3.50 3.67
Utility is much more
important than
appearance in daily
necessities. 3.14 3.28
Products I buy
should wear well. 3.82 3.83
Mean * 3.43 3.54
Trend conscious
I'd like to try newly
introduced high-tech
products. 3.18 3.30
I pay attention to
annual market-share
reports for many
products. 2.86 2.83
I'd better have what
others have. 2.93 3.16
I'll buy products that
have been advertised. 3.59 3.34
Mean * 3.14 3.16
Conservatism
I only buy products
I've tried before. 3.79 3.85
I don't try new
products easily. 3.33 3.34
Mean * 3.56 3.59
Personal taste
I never buy something
if it does not suit
my taste, even if it
may be a real bargain. 3.99 3.98
It's not advisable to
compromise when
shopping. 3.93 3.84
Mean * 3.96 3.91
Note: For simplicity, means are shown without standard deviations.
Means are anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree).
For sample information, please refer to notes in Table 2.
* ANOVA (analysis of variance) F value is significant at p < .001.
TABLE 5
Costs of Multiple Media
Media Peak time 30" CPM CPM *
Television
CCTV-1 9
CCTV-5 21
CCTV-6 23
Mean 18
Newspaper
Reference News 16
People's Daily 55
Xinming Evening News 12
Guangzhou Daily 24
Yangcheng Evening News 34
Beijing Evening News 17
Jin wan boo 20
Yangzi Evening News 13
Mean 24
Magazine
Readers 25
Love 21
Dazhong dianyin 43
Securities Market Weekly 68
CAAC /
China Tourism 100
Shanghai Style 60
Auto Fan 62
Mean 54
Source: Media owners/CMMS 1999, cited in China Market and
MediaFact (Zenith Media 2000/2001).
Note: CPM = cost per thousand.
* CPM is calculated by dividing full-page (4c) rate
by adult readership.
TABLE 6
Cost-Efficiency of Categories of Magazines
Adult
Circulation readership
Magazines ('000) ('000) (a)
General
Baxiao shiyi wai 300 519
Window of the South 380 217
World Vision 500 580
Readers 3,850 5,981
Overseas Digest 500 1,711
Globe 310 717
Bosom Friend 2,500 3,620
New Weekly 280 355
Mean 1,078 1,713
Women's interest
Health and Beauty 350 569
Women's Friend 310 221
Love 900 2,285
She Hope 300 442
Mean 465 879
Entertainment
Dozhong dianying 300 692
GD TV weekly 80 57
Mean 190 375
Business
Securities Market Weekly 1,000 591
In-flight
CAAC 370 /
Aviation Today 160 /
Mean 265 /
Travel
China Tourism 100 319
Fashion
Shanghai Style 860 1,131
Ray 297 759
Trends-Cosmopolitan 288 331
Trends-Gentlemen 231 364
Elle 300 615
Mean 395 640
Auto
Auto Fan 230 417
Full-page
Magazines (4C) RMB CPM (b)
General
Baxiao shiyi wai 30,000 58
Window of the South 20,000 92
World Vision 35,000 60
Readers 150,000 25
Overseas Digest 30,000 18
Globe 25,000 35
Bosom Friend 120,000 33
New Weekly 48,150 136
Mean 57,269 57
Women's interest
Health and Beauty 25,000 44
Women's Friend 20,000 90
Love 48,000 21
She Hope 38,000 86
Mean 32,750 60
Entertainment
Dozhong dianying 30,000 43
GD TV weekly 12,200 214
Mean 21,100 129
Business
Securities Market Weekly 40,000 68
In-flight
CAAC 149,400 /
Aviation Today 48,000 /
Mean 98,700 /
Travel
China Tourism 32,000 100
Fashion
Shanghai Style 68,000 60
Ray 79,000 104
Trends-Cosmopolitan 97,200 294
Trends-Gentlemen 86,400 237
Elle 148,155 241
Mean 95,751 187
Auto
Auto Fan 26,000 62
Source: Media Owners/CMMS 1999, cited in China Market and
MediaFact (Zenith Media 2000/2001).
Note: CPM = cost per thousand.
(a) Readership is based on 20 main cities in China.
(b) CPM is calculated by dividing full-page (4c) rate by
adult readership.
REFERENCES
Aaker, Jennifer L., and Angela Y. Lee (2001), "I' Seek Pleasures and 'We' Avoid Pains: The Role of Self-Regulatory Goals in Information Processing and Persuasion," Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (June), 17-50.
Abratt, Russell, and Deanna Cowan (1999), "Client-Agency Perspectives of Information Needs for Media Planning," Journal of Advertising Research, 39 (November/December), 37-51.
ACNielsen (2003), "Take a Tip from the Locals: Unconventional Marketing Mix Works in China," ACNielsen Insights Asia Pacific (April), 4-5.
Alden, Dana L., Jan-Benedict E. M. Steenkamp, and Rajeev Batra (1999), "Brand Positioning Through Advertising in Asia, North America, and Europe: The Role of Global Consumer Culture," Journal of Marketing, 63 (January), 75-87.
Balabanis, George, Adamantios Diamantopoulos, Rene Dentiste Mueller, and T. C. Melewar (2001), "The Impact of Nationalism, Patriotism, and Internationalism on Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies," Journal of International Business Studies, 32 (1), 157-175.
Batra, Rajeev (1997), "Executive Insights: Marketing Issues and Challenges in Transitional Economies," Journal of International Marketing, 5 (4), 95-114.
--, Venkatram Ramaswamy, Dana L. Alden, Jan-Benedict E. M. Steenkamp, and S. Ramachander (2000), "Effects of Brand Local and Nonlocal Origin on Consumer Attitudes in Developing Countries," Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9 (2), 83-95.
--, and David K. Tse (2003), "Marketing in Transition Economies" (special issue editor's note), Journal of International Marketing, 11 (2), 3-5.
Boisot, Max, and John Child (1999), "Organizations as Adaptive Systems in Complex Environments: The Case of China," Organization Science, 10 (3), 237-253.
Child, John, and David K. Tse (2001), "China's Transition and the Impacts on International Business," Journal of International Business Studies, 32 (1), 8-21.
China Economic Times (Beijing) (2003), "2004 CCTV Prime-Time Advertising Bid Achieved RMB4.41157 Billion" (in Chinese) (November 20).
China Statistical Yearbook (Zhongguo tongji nianjian) (2002), Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe.
Cui, Geng, and Qiming Liu (2001), "Executive Insights: Emerging Market Segments in a Transitional Economy: A Study of Urban Consumers in China," Journal of International Marketing, 9 (1), 84-107.
D'Amico, Theodore E (1999), "Magazines' Secret Weapon: Media Selection on the Basis of Behavior, as Opposed to Demography," Journal of Advertising Research, 39 (November/ December), 53-60.
Douek, Timothy (2001), "China's Cosmetic Fever," Global Cosmetic Industry, 168 (February), 56.
Ger, Guliz (1999), "Localizing in the Global Village: Local Firms Competing in Global Markets," California Management Review, 41 (4), 64-82.
Hiu, Alice S. Y., Noel M. Siu, Charlie C. L. Wang, and Ludwig M. K. Change (2001), "An Investigation of Decision-Making Styles of Consumers in China," Journal of Consumer Affairs, 35 (2), 326-345.
Ho, Suk-ching (2001), "Growing Consumer Power in China: Some Lessons for Managers," Journal of International Marketing, 9 (1), 64-83.
Hung, Kineta, and Roger M. Heeler (1999), "Language and Its Effects on Advertising Modality: The Case of Chinese and English," Australasian Marketing Journal, 7 (2), 7-14.
--, Stella Yiyan Li, and Russell W. Belk (2005), "Consumption and the 'Modern Woman' in China: A Conceptual Framework," in Asia-Pacific Advances in Consumer Research. vol. 6, Young-Won Ha and Youjae Yi, eds., Duluth, MN: Association of Consumer Research.
Jia, Yubin (2004), "2003 Zhongguo guanggao yeyou chuangxin gao" (Advertising industry in China achieves higher in 2003), Mei Zhong mei (May 8).
King, Karen Whitehill, Leonard N. Reid, and Margaret Morrison (1997), "Large-Agency Media Specialists' Opinions on Newspaper Advertising for National Accounts," Journal of Advertising, 26 (Summer), 1-18.
Kirmani, Amna (1990), "The Effect of Perceived Advertising Costs on Brand Perceptions," Journal of Consumer Research. 17 (2), 160-171.
-- (1997), "Advertising Repetition as a Signal of Quality: If It's Advertised So Much, Something Must Be Wrong," Journal of Advertising, 26 (3), 77-86.
--, and Peter Wright (1989), "Money Talks: Perceived Advertising Expense and Expected Product Quality," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (3), 344-353.
Leigh, James H., and Terrance G. Gabel (1992), "Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behavior and Implications for Marketing Strategy," Journal of Consumer Marketing, 9 (Winter), 27-38.
Li, Yuan (2004), "Huwai guanggao weixie dianshi guanggao de bazhu diwei" (Outdoor ads threaten TV as the top advertising media), Zhongguo jingying bao (February 23).
Lu, Taihong (2002), Zhongguo yingxiao da gonglue: zhongwai qiye zhengba pian (Marketing in China: A Report on Marketing in 2002), Hong Kong: China Marketing Research Center and et press.
Lu, Xiang (2002), "Zhongguo qikan ye zai quanqiu hua shidai de shengcun kongjian" (The survival space of the Chinese magazine industry in the era of globalization), available at academic.mediachina.net/xsjd_view.jsp?id = 301 (accessed January 17, 2003).
McLuhan, Marshall, Fiore Quentin, and Jerome Agel (2001), The Medium Is the Message: An Inventory of Effects, Corte Madera, CA: Gingko Press.
Rong, Jinhua (2002), "2002 nian di er jidu Zhongguo guanggao shichang zhong e da 38 yi mei yuan" (China adspend reaches U.S.$3.8 billion in second quarter of 2002), Shangye shidai (August 25).
Schein, Louisa (2001), "Urbanity, Cosmopolitanism, Consumption," in China Urban: Ethnographies of Contemporary Culture, Nancy N. Chen, ed., Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 165-182.
Schmitt, Bernd (1997), "Who Is the Chinese Consumer? Segmentation in the People's Republic of China," European Management Journal 15 (2), 191-194.
Securities Daily (Beijing) (2002), "Highlights of China Advertising in 2002" (December 15).
Shimp, Terence A. (2003), Advertising, Promotion, and Supplemental Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications, 6th ed., Mason, OH: South-Western College Publishing.
Sin, Leo Yat-ming, Suk-ching Ho, and Stella L. M. So (2000), "An Assessment of Theoretical and Methodological Development in Advertising Research on Mainland China: A Twenty-Year Review," Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising. 22 (Fall), 54-69.
--, and Oliver Hon-ming Yau (2001), "Female Role Orientation and Consumption Values: Some Evidence from Mainland China," Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 13 (2), 49-75.
Sissors, Jack Z., and Lincoln Bumba (1996), Advertising Media Planning, 5th ed., Chicago: NTC Business Books.
Sklair, L. (1994), "The Culture-Ideology of Consumerism in Urban China: Some Findings from a Survey in Shanghai," in Research in Consumer Behavior, vol. 7, C.J. Schultz, II, R. W. Belk, and G. Ger, eds., Greenwich, CT: JAI, 259292.
Steenkamp, Jan-Benedict E. M., Rajeev Batra, and Dana L. Alden (2003), "How Perceived Brand Globalness Creates Brand Value," Journal of International Business Studies, 34 (1), 53-65.
Stewart, David W., and Kevin J. McAuliffe (1988), "Determinants of International Media Purchasing: A Survey of Media Buyers," Journal of Advertising, 17 (3), 22-26.
Sumner, David E. (2001), "Who Pays for Magazines? Advertisers or Consumers?" Journal of Advertising Research, 41 (November/December), 61-67.
Tse, David K., Russell W. Belk, and Nan Zhou (1989), "Becoming a Consumer Society: A Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Content Analysis of Print Ads from People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (1), 457-472.
--, Chi Kin (Bennett) Yim, Joe N. Zhou, and Jonathan Zhu (2002), "Do Social Institutions Matter to Markets in Transition? Investigating Consumer Sentiment in China," working paper, University of Hong Kong, Chinese Management Centre, Faculty of Business and Economics.
Walters, Peter G. P., and Saeed Samiee (2003), "Marketing Strategy in Emerging Markets: The Case of China," Journal of International Marketing, 11 (1), 97-106.
Wei, Ran, and Zhongdang Pan (1999), "Mass Media and Consumerist Values in the People's Republic of China," International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 11 (1), 75-97.
World Bank Group (2004), World Development Indicator 2004, available at www.worldbank.org/data/wdi2004/pdfs/table41.pdf (accessed August 19, 2004).
Xu, Shousong (2004), "2003 nian Zhongguo guanggao toufang 145 yi meiyuan" (In 2003, adspend is U.S.$14.5 billion in China), Beijing Youth Daily (March 2).
Yao, Lin (2004), "2003 nian baokan guanggao shichang xinshi fenxi" (Analysis of 2003 print ad market), available at www.media.sinobnet.com/wzjx/0402121.htm (accessed May 11, 2004).
--, and Daming Tian (2002), "2002 nian shang ban nian Zhongguo qikan shichang huimo" (2002 Biannual report on advertising market of Chinese magazines), available at www.media.sinobnet.com/wzjx/qkgg.htm (accessed January 17, 2003).
Zenith Media (2000/2001), China: Market and MediaFact, London: Zenith Media.
Zhou, Nan, and Russell W. Belk (1993), "China's Advertising and the Export Marketing Learning Curve: The First Decade," Journal of Advertising Research, 33 (November/December), 50-66.
--, Dongsheng Zhou, and Ming Ouyang (2003), "Long-Term Effects of TV Advertising on Sales of Consumer Durables and Non-Durables: The Case of China," Journal of Advertising, 32 (Summer), 35-54.
This study was partially supported by a research grant from the Chinese Management Centre.
Kineta Hung (Ph. D., York University) is an assistant professor of marketing, School of Business, University of Hong Kong.
Flora Fang Gu is a Ph. D. student, School of Business, University of Hong Kong.
David K. Tse (Ph.D., University of California, Berkeley) is a professor of international marketing and director of the Chinese Management Centre, School of Business, University of Hong Kong.
In addition, make sure to read these articles:
- The Market Scale of Online Advertisement in China Will Reach RMB8.2 Billion in 2006.
- The Most Comprehensive Directory to All the Major Media Companies Operating in China.
- UAW President Yokich Protests Bill To Normalize U.S. Trade With China.
- Magazines: The No-TiVo Zone
- Customer magazines.
- What Ails Magazine Readers
- Lounge Act
- New WGC leader calls for new designs
- The Eden of Garden Magazines
- CMP starts mags for China & Middle East, e-newsletter & tech online sites.
- Opportunities Abound In China
- New Report Examines the Water Treatment Chemicals Market in China.
- IMAS PUBLISHING & PHILLIPS BUSINESS TO LAUNCH BROADBAND TITLE IN CHINA.
- Japan's black tea market.
- The New Face of Beauty
Email
Digg It
del.icio.us
