Personality and information seeking: understanding how traits influence information-seeking...

Organizational newcomers go through various socialization processes before becoming organizational veterans. Information seeking (a self-socialization process) involves newcomers' proactively seeking new information, most times to reduce uncertainty. This study assessed how personality traits,

specifically, Costa and McCrae's Big Five, affect this process. Multiple regression analyses indicate that certain traits influence information seeking directly and via the mediation of social costs. Of particular note are the results surrounding extroversion. Specifically, the data suggest a direct relationship between extroversion and covert relational information seeking, whereas perceived relational social costs also mediate this relationship. Several important extensions to the literature are discussed herein.

Keywords: information seeking; personality; Big Five; socialization; acculturation

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Information seeking is a proactive behavior enacted by organizational newcomers to reduce uncertainty (Ashford & Cummings, 1985). With implications for role adaptability, role clarity, individual performance, the regulation of employee behavior, and the development of one's self-image (Jablin, 1987; Katz, 1978; Miller & Jablin, 1991; Morrison, 1993a, 1993b), research in information seeking has grown in popularity over the years as inquiries have loosely defined its boundaries (e.g., frequency, source, and strategy) as a predictor variable. However, when considering predictors of information seeking, inquiries have generally been confined to situational factors such as type of information needed, information source, or perceived source credibility. Largely ignored is the possible contribution of a dispositional explanation.

The notion that behavior is a function of not only situational considerations but dispositions as well is commonplace in scholarship (Epstein & O'Brien, 1985; George, 1992; House, Shane, & Herold, 1996; Jones, 1983). Yet information seeking has typically been examined solely as a function of the situation. In their foundational work on information seeking, Miller and Jablin (1991) note that individual differences may be a major contributing factor to the overall information-seeking process of newcomers. Furthermore, since the 1930s, scholars have postulated that communication and personality characteristics may be "inherently intertwined" (Daly, 1978). Yet little is known about the relative contributions of person variables to the development of traditional information-seeking antecedents (e.g., perceptions of social costs--a belief that one's image may be jeopardized by seeking information) or the overall information-seeking behavior of organizational newcomers (Teboul, 1995). The present study responds to calls to delineate these relationships (Miller, 1996; Miller & Jablin, 1991; Reichers, 1987; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995) by testing a segment of the Miller and Jablin model that addresses the extent to which personality is predictive of perceptions of social costs and information-seeking behaviors.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Information-Seeking Processes

Information seeking is the proactive communicative process of gathering information from one's environment, typically for the purposes of uncertainty reduction. According to Miller and Jablin (1991), organizational newcomers seek information when gaps exist between the quantity and/or quality of information possessed and that which is desired to reduce uncertainty regarding one of three issues: (a) tasks, (b) relationships with new coworkers, or (c) performance (Ashford & Cummings, 1985; Feldman, 1976; Jablin, 1987; Louis, 1980; Roney & Sorrentino, 1995).

Those with task uncertainty (Hanser & Muchinsky, 1978; Miller & Jablin, 1991) seek task-specific information in hopes of gaining knowledge regarding how to perform a task. For example, if a newcomer is unsure of how to program his or her computer, task uncertainty will be experienced and task information will be sought to reduce the uncertainty. When a newcomer is uncertain about how his or her performance will be perceived, he or she experiences performance uncertainty, (Miller & Jablin, 1991) and act to reduce it by seeking performance feedback (Morrison, 1993a). Relational uncertainty is experienced when newcomers question the nature of relationships with coworkers. For example, one may be unsure of the appropriateness of disclosing personal information to new colleagues. To reduce this tension, feedback is sought regarding a variety of role-related issues (Brown & Levinson, 1978).

Two approaches are available to newcomers to aid in the uncertainty reduction processes. First, newcomers seek information with varying frequency, thereby manipulating the amount of information obtained. Second, they alter information-seeking strategies by using an overt or covert method (Ashford & Cummings, 1985). Overt refers to asking direct questions, whereas covert refers to watching and observing others, the use of third parties, and asking indirect questions (Miller & Jablin, 1991). For instance, if a newcomer were uncertain about how to perform a task they might seek task information by asking frequent and direct questions (e.g., "How do I complete this log sheet?"). Alternatively, they may choose to be more evasive and monitor how others complete the log sheets. Hence, they will seek performance information with varying frequency using an overt or covert method.

Much current information-seeking scholarship is grounded in the Miller and Jablin (1991) model. This comprehensive model not only outlined the types of information sought and the methods used but made major contributions by identifying antecedents and mediators to the process. The model included important additions to the literature such as perceptions of social costs, how employees use different tactics to seek information from various information sources, and consideration of the impact of individual differences and situational factors on information-seeking tactics and perceptions of uncertainty and social costs.

The model's comprehensiveness and the research attention given to most of its underlying concepts during the past decade indicate the effort taken to explicate the information-seeking habits of organizational newcomers. However, these efforts have seldom extended beyond situationally grounded variables such as types of information and sources of information. As a result, research on these antecedents has been largely limited to addressing three issues: (a) whether a newcomer will seek information, (b) how frequently it will be sought, and (c) which strategies will be utilized (Ashford, 1993; Miller, 1996; Miller & Jablin, 1991; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000). Significant relationships between both information-seeking frequency and strategies have been identified, however, the magnitude of these relationships has been small, for several reasons. First, the majority of studies utilize situational variables (or state variables with large situational components), which historically explain little variance in information-seeking behavior. Second, when trait variables are examined, the studies do not use the methodological standards necessary to adequately examine traits (e.g., using a longitudinal methodology or a scale that is longitudinally stable), often resulting in the assessment of a state. The former is important because whereas traits are the enduring tendencies, moods, or temperamental makeup that are stable across situations and contexts (Epstein & O'Brien, 1985; Weaver, 1998), states are temporary moods or temperament (George, 1992, 1996). In other words, states vary daily and are highly affected by situations (George, 1992). Thus, if one were concerned with information seeking in a temporal environment, states should be the variable under examination. However, because most studies examine information seeking over time in varied contexts, traits provide a richer framework of examination.

Unfortunately, contemporary research often blurs the distinctions between states and traits (Chaplin, John, & Goldberg, 1988; Daly & Bippus, 1998) by measuring states as traits or measuring traits as states. These errors occur in a variety of literatures, including information seeking, for three main reasons. First, states have been traditionally easier to measure. Second, states are easily observable in most cases. Third, the effect of states on behavior can be assessed in a one-shot study (Epstein & O'Brien, 1985; George, 1992). Hence, statements either for or against the predictive validity of traits on information-seeking behaviors would be premature in most cases, warranting further investigation.

Personality as an Antecedent to Information Seeking

With few exceptions, robust and stable personality traits are generally ignored in information-seeking research. Such research is sparse because as Miller and Jablin (1991) explain, "[their] effects on newcomer's information-seeking behavior are so numerous and complex" (p. 102). Only recently have researchers recognized the potential predictive power of personality and answered the calls for individual differences to take on a more prominent role in the wider newcomer adaptation literature (Chan & Schmitt, 2000; Miller & Jablin, 1991; Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000). Nevertheless, consistent results have been elusive for a variety of reasons. First, most studies use state-based measures instead of trait-based measures. Second, the wrong personality traits are being assessed. Third, personality does not have an influence on information seeking. Traits have been shown to predict a variety of organizational behaviors (e.g., performance, leadership capabilities), including communication (Moberg, 2001; Northcraft & Ashford, 1990; Teboul, 1995; Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller; 2000); therefore, personality may predict newcomer information-seeking patterns if the appropriate traits, mediating variables, and measures are chosen. To date, two trait classifications have been examined in this regard: the Big Five global personality taxonomy (Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000) and traditional midlevel traits such as self-esteem (Northcraft & Ashford, 1990; Teboul, 1995) and tolerance for ambiguity (Fedor, Rensvold, & Adams, 1992; Teboul, 1995), both of which are subdimensions of one of the Big Five.

According to the Miller & Jablin model (1991) and other theoretical and empirical scholarship (Miller, 1996; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995; Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller; 2000), trait-based predictors, such as the Big Five, should help explain newcomer information-seeking behavior. Past contributions to this line of research have been due, in part, to situation-based determinants. In fact, although social costs appear to be related to a variety of personality dimensions, this has only been observed under the situational rubric. Herold and Fedor (1998) note that this type of "trait neglect" (Kanfer & Heggestad, 1997, p. 28) is an obstacle to the further understanding of the information-seeking process. This study extends the information-seeking literature in three important ways. First, we investigate the relationship between traits and perceptions of social costs associated with information seeking. Given the historically integral role of social costs in the information-seeking process (Fedor et al., 1992; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995), this extension is essential. Second, this study examines Miller and Jablin's assertion that traits affect the overall information-seeking process of organizational newcomers. Specifically, certain traits will affect relational, performance, and/or task information seeking when overt and/or covert methods are utilized. Last, this study assesses the extent to which social costs help mediate the impact of traits on information seeking. This is important because House et al. (1996) maintain that when assessing the impact of a broad measure on behavior, it helps to use a midlevel predisposition or attitudinal variable associated with the outcome to generate greater understanding of the outcome variable. The resulting data should provide clarity to the Miller and Jablin model and the information-seeking literature as a whole.

HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTION

As previously mentioned, employee information-seeking strategies can be categorized as either overt (direct solicitation of information) or covert (indirect solicitation or monitoring and surveillance). Use of these tactics should be associated with personality traits in a number of ways.

Conscientiousness is sometimes described as the will to achieve (Smith, 1967). Those high in conscientiousness tend to show signs of dependability, thoroughness, and responsibility. However, recent classifications include more volitional characteristics (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Costa & McCrae, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1985, 1989) such as hard work, achievement orientation, and perseverance. As the subtraits indicate, individuals possessing this trait tend to outperform those who do not (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Salgado, 1997), though there is some disagreement among scholars (Hurtz & Donovan, 2000). Considered in the context of information-seeking behavior, many of these characteristics may require a commitment to communication. For example, those who have an achievement orientation would be communicatively involved with coworkers because they are driven to accomplish more. Without continuous feedback, there would be no way to ensure that they were working toward their goal. More important, consistent and timely feedback from employers improves employee performance (Klein, 1987). Conscientiousness has been tied to job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991), and individual performance has been tied to information seeking (Morrison, 1993b); thus, it follows that conscientious newcomers will seek information, to ensure they are high performers.

In one of the few studies to assess the impact of traits on information seeking, Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller (2000) examined the association between task and performance-based information seeking and conscientiousness and found no relationship. This finding is not intuitive in light of what is known about the nature of highly conscientious individuals. Self-esteem, for example, loads on the Big Five measure of conscientiousness and has been examined as an antecedent to feedback-seeking behaviors. For example, Northcraft and Ashford (1990) found that self-esteem had a main effect on the inquiry method of feedback seeking. More specifically, high self-esteem individuals sought significantly more feedback via direct inquiry than those low in self-esteem. In a similar study, Teboul (1995) found a significant but weak relationship with covert information seeking, but the overt outcome was unsupported. The Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller findings may be due to the study's sole assessment of task and performance feedback seeking via monitoring strategies. Extant research confirms that most people take a functional approach to satisfying their communication needs (Perse & Courthright, 1993) by choosing the channel of communication that best suits their strategic ends (Rosengren & Windahl, 1972; Rubin & Martin, 1998). Newcomers high in conscientiousness are driven toward achievement and performance; thus, they are expected to seek task and performance information using overt methods in an attempt to limit misunderstandings and ensure high performance. Taking this into consideration this study proposes that

Hypothesis 1: Conscientiousness will be positively associated with overt task and performance information-seeking frequency.

Openness to experience is sometimes interpreted as culture (Hakel, 1974; Norman, 1963) or intellect (Hogan, 1991; Peabody & Goldberg, 1989) because of the tendency for one to be curious and open-minded, pursue things high in aesthetic value, and be proactive while interacting with others. Based on theoretical developments in the information-seeking literature, feeling more self-confident and intellectually progressive should increase one's desire to seek information. Mead (1934) argued, for example, that self-actualization and attempts to reach one's greatest potential only come through interacting with others (Rubin & Martin, 1998). Moreover, uncertainty (the most frequently cited antecedent to information seeking), a subdimension of openness to experience (Martin, 1996), leads individuals to seek out situations and people providing clarity about their environment (Hodson & Sorrentino, 1999; Sorrentino & Short, 1986). Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller (2000) found similar evidence of a moderate positive relationship between openness to experience and seeking performance feedback and a weak relationship with seeking task information.

Despite these developments, important theoretical aspects of the Miller and Jablin model (1991) remain unexamined. The Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller (2000) study only measured overt information seeking that typically occurs when social costs are low. When social costs are high, newcomers tend to seek information using covert methods. Newcomers are known to have high perceptions of social costs; hence, expanding the inquiry to include covert methods could distinguish a relationship.

Hypothesis 2: Openness to experience will be positively associated with covert and overt information-seeking frequency.

Extroversion refers to one's tendency to be sociable, expressive, and show initiative (Costa & McCrae, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1985). Often used to describe communicative phenomena, those possessing these subtraits are very talkative and proactive in most of their interactions, spending a significantly larger portion of their time socializing than do introverts (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Weaver (1998) found that individuals demonstrating high extroversion were gregarious and assertive, leading them to be very open and proactive communicators. Relatedly, Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller (2000) discovered a moderate relationship between extroversion and monitoring for performance information seeking, yet the task variable went unsupported. Northcraft and Ashford's (1990) observations a decade earlier help explain these findings by noting, "A desire for personal performance feedback is likely to be seen as an appropriate attempt at self improvement" (p. 59). Therefore, most newcomers high in extroversion, because of the implications for impression management, likely prefer to overtly seek performance information before covertly seeking it. Moreover, because extroverts are also very affectionate, friendly, and actively seek interpersonal stimulation, they will also likely overtly seek other types of information, especially relational. As a result, the following is hypothesized:

Hypothesis 3: Extroversion will be positively associated with overt information-seeking frequency.

Neuroticism, also known as emotional instability, is the extent to which one experiences angst, anxiety, depression, insecurity, and vulnerability. Although examined in a limited fashion in the communication literature (Beatty & McCroskey, 1998), Weaver (1998) found those high in neuroticism report being apprehensive, imperceptive, and frustrated when engaged in interpersonal interaction. Extending these findings, Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller (2000) noted a negative association between neuroticism and interpersonal interaction (e.g., playing on the company softball team or attending company parties or picnics). This is most likely due to the neurotic employee's belief that he or she is a frequent participant in "spirals of miscommunication" (cf. Coupland, Wiemann, & Giles, 1991). Consequently, he or she would tend to minimize obvious and overt interpersonal communication, particularly given Levy, Albright, Cawley, and Williams's (1995) discovery that those high in social anxiety have fewer intentions to seek feedback. Therefore,

Hypothesis 4: Neuroticism will be negatively associated with overt information-seeking frequency.

Miller and Jablin (1991) indicate that "Even though individuals seek to reduce uncertainty through interaction with others, there are costs embedded in any context associated with information-seeking" (p. 95). These are termed "social costs." According to Blau (1964), social costs exist when one believes his or her social acceptance, personal attraction, or social approval may be jeopardized by interpersonal interaction. Information-seeking processes are, in part, influenced by the severity of these perceived costs associated with relational, performance, and task-related social exchanges. If these perceived costs are low, information will be sought directly. If one's image may be damaged, information will be sought indirectly or not at all. For example, an organizational newcomer seeking performance feedback may be viewed as determined and organizationally conscientious and, as a result, continue to seek this type of information to enhance her image. Alternatively, if one were to seek task information, he may believe his image would suffer. As a result, he may seek information covertly or not at all.

Generally viewed as a function of the situation, Miller and Jablin (1991), among others, have questioned the origin of perceived social costs and note that it may be, at least in part, a function of traits (Fedor et al., 1992; Morrison, 1993a; Morrison & Bies, 1991). For example, one may be emotionally unstable, thus, any communicative interaction could act as a stimulus for image management behaviors. When one perceives he or she may be viewed as incompetent or cut off from social networks as a result of this interaction, perceived social costs could greatly increase.

For perceived social costs to be solely the function of traits, they must exist in various contexts, at various points in time, and be largely unaffected by situations. As documented in several studies, however, social costs are highly variable (Miller 1996; Sias & Wyers, 2001) and typically rise as a newcomer increases in organizational tenure; social costs are clearly not the sole function of traits. At the same time, much like uncertainty (Sorrentino & Short, 1986), a newcomer's attitude toward social costs may not be solely based on situational conditions. Those "characterized as uncertainty-oriented (UO) have discovery-oriented cognitive styles" that have been found to be traits in nature (Hodson & Sorrentino, 1999, p. 255). In line with the Miller and Jablin (1991) model and similar works (e.g., Northcraft & Ashford, 1990), Morrison and Bies (1991) suggest that "dispositional factors can influence the degree to which feedback seekers are concerned about how they appear to others" (p. 534). In some cases, not precluding the situational impact, certain individual differences may also account for variability in perceived social costs. As a result, organizational veterans may not be able to effectively mitigate a newcomer's perceived social costs by altering the situation (e.g., creating an open culture or making coworkers' feelings more salient). Because perceived social costs are positively linked to covert methods of information seeking (Miller, 1996; Fedor et al., 1992; Teboul, 1995; Sias & Wyers, 2001), the result could lead to an impairment of performance and role development due to the misinterpretation or misunderstanding of information gathered via indirect methods. Thus, to the extent that social cost perceptions are affected by traits, organizational veterans may have to be more proactive in information dispersion to ensure that newcomers are accurately informed. In sum, social costs have been shown to be an important predictor of employee information seeking. Understanding the extent to which social cost perceptions are affected by personality traits is therefore an important step in this body of research.

One approach to examining the trait-social cost relationship is to analyze the link between some of the Big Five personality traits and social cost perceptions. In cases where one is extroverted and internally driven toward social interaction, perceptions of social costs may be minimal because of the seemingly contradictory nature of these two variables. Theoretically, those who crave social contact would not perceive social costs associated with that interaction because they tend to be confident and assured in most settings (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Piedmont, 1998). Extroverts are both affable and social in nature and thus less likely to fear that their communicative interactions could cause damage to their image. However, no research to date has attempted to test this important segment of the Miller and Jablin (1991) model. Therefore, the following is hypothesized:

Hypothesis 5: Extroversion is negatively associated with perceived social costs related to seeking information.

The decision to seek information is affected by an assessment of how the costs will affect one's personal image (Morrison & Bies, 1991). Due to the implications for one's organizational image and eventual well-being, the mere presence of social costs could exacerbate neurotic tendencies of insecurity and instability. Studies have found that individuals high in neuroticism are sensitive to ridicule and easily embarrassed (Costa & McCrae, 1992, 1994; Piedmont, 1998); thus, they would be anxious about interactive events, resulting in perceptions of high social costs. To date, this relationship has not been examined, although theoretical precedents indicate the following:

Hypothesis 6: Neuroticism is positively associated with perceived social costs related to seeking information.

Traits are expected to influence perceived social costs and the information-seeking habits of new employees (see Figure 1). Given Miller and Jablin's (1991) prediction that personality may affect perceptions of social costs (Morrison & Bies, 1991; Northcraft & Ashford, 1990) and findings supporting the influence of social costs on information seeking (Fedor et al., 1992; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995), additional variance in information seeking may be accounted for when social costs are used to mediate the impact of certain traits on information seeking. When assessing the impact of a broad measure on specific behavior, it helps to use a midlevel predisposition or attitudinal variable clearly linked to the outcome to provide a more detailed assessment of the outcome variable (House et al., 1996). Therefore, it is important to understand the direct and indirect (via mediation by social costs) impact of traits on information-seeking behavior.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Research Question 1: What is the relative predictive ability of traits on overt and covert information-seeking frequency when mediated by social costs?

METHOD

Participants

Participants were 187 new employees at a large 4-year university. The sample comprised 104 women (56%) and 83 men (44%). The ethnic background of the participants was 157 Anglo-American (84%), 6 African American (3%), 12 European (6%), 8 Asian (4%), and 4 Hispanic (2%). One hundred five of the participants were between the ages of 18 and 25 (56%), 33 between 26 and 30 years of age (18%), 22 between 36 and 40 years of age (12%), 15 between 31 and 35 years old (8%), 6 between 41 and 45 years of age (3%), and 6 older than 46 years (3%). The response rate was 42% (n = 187 out of 450).

It generally takes 3 to 9 months to adjust to a new organization (Feldman, 1976; Katz, 1978; Marshall & Cooper, 1976; Wanous, 1976), but the actual rate of socialization may be affected by a variety of factors (Bauer, Morrison, & Callister, 1998). As a result, as the person and situation vary, socialization rates may vary as well. To ensure that participants were familiar with their organizational roles and coworkers but not fully integrated, a 6-month time limit was imposed for participation. The average tenure of the participants in their new organizations was 3.4 months.

Procedures

The organization's human resource department was contacted to request organization-wide participation over a 12-month period. They provided the names and other departmental contact information of each newcomer. Cover sheets requesting participation and surveys were delivered to each newcomer's mailbox with a return-addressed, stamped envelope. Three weeks after the original delivery date, a reminder notice was delivered via mail to each potential participant. Although much of the current literature uses longitudinal data gathering, a cross-sectional/one-shot format was used here because much evidence indicates that information seeking is stable over time (Morrison, 1993b). Additionally, consistent with the majority of socialization literature (Bauer et al., 1998), self-reports were used because, as Morrison (1993a) contends, "objective" sources (e.g., coworkers or supervisors) may be very unreliable because they may not observe or attend to all information-seeking behavior, particularly covert behavior.

Independent Variables

Big Five Measure of Personality. Costa and McCrae's (1992) NEO Five Factor Inventory--Form S (NEO-Form S) was used to measure participants' self-reported levels of Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Using 12 items to assess Neuroticism (e.g., "I rarely feel fearful or anxious"), Extroversion (e.g., "I really enjoy talking to people"), Openness (e.g., "I often try new and foreign foods"), Agreeableness (e.g., "Most people I know like me"), and Conscientiousness (e.g., "I work hard to accomplish my goals"), the NEO-Form S asks respondents to rate their answers to these items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Several statements were reverse keyed, and the individual items were summed, then averaged, to create an overall measure for that personality characteristic. Reliability coefficient alphas were .95 (Neuroticism), .80 (Extroversion), .80 (Openness), .83 (Agreeableness), and .75 (Conscientiousness).

Social costs. Three items from Miller's (1996) Social Costs Scale were used to measure newcomers' responses to the following: "A newcomer like myself would be thought of negatively for seeking this information," "If I were to seek this information, I would make myself and the other person I approached uncomfortable," and "By seeking this information, I would be violating social norms." Responses to these statements were made in reference to "How well I am performing" (performance information), "How well I am getting along with others" (relational information), and "How to perform my job" (task information). All responses were graded on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Reliability coefficient alphas were .87 (Task Social Costs), .88 (Performance Social Costs), and .89 (Relational Social Costs).

Dependent Variables

Information seeking. Information seeking across frequency, strategies, and types was assessed with Miller's (1996) Information-Seeking Tactic Instrument. This instrument uses multiple items to measure how frequently one uses overt (four items) and covert (seven items) tactics to seek Task, Performance, and Relational Information. Participants were asked to respond to questions such as, "I ask specific, straight to the point questions to get the information I want" and "I let them know indirectly that I would like to know the information." All items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = never to 5 = frequently. Six different dependent variables resulted from this scale--overt task, covert task, overt performance, covert performance, overt relational, and covert relational. Consistent with previous research (e.g., Miller, 1996), Cronbach's reliability coefficients for the overt method were .80 (Task Information), .86 (Performance Information), and .84 (Relational Information), whereas the covert method reliabilities were .78 (Task Information), .80 (Performance Information), and .83 (Relational Information).

RESULTS

Correlational analyses and multiple regressions were conducted to examine Hypotheses 1-6. Table 1 provides information regarding these regressions.

Personality and Information Seeking

Hypothesis 1 predicted a positive relationship between conscientiousness and overt task and performance information-seeking frequency. This hypothesis received support. As expected, conscientiousness was positively associated with both overt performance information seeking (r =. 18, [r.sup.2] = .032, p < .01) and task information seeking (r =. 18, [r.sup.2] = .032, p < .01).

Hypothesis 2 posited a positive relationship between openness to experience and both overt and covert information seeking. This hypothesis was not supported. Significant results were found for covert performance (r = -.13, p < .05) and the covert relational (r = -. 10, n.s.) information-seeking relationship approached significance, but both were in a negative direction.

Hypothesis 3, which predicted a positive association between extroversion and overt information-seeking frequency, received partial support. Specifically, extroversion was related to the frequency with which respondents used overt methods to seek relational information (r = .31, [r.sup.2] =. 10, p < .000). Although not hypothesized, the analysis exhibited similar results for the covert method of seeking relational (r = .21, [r.sup.2] = .04, p < .005), task (r =. 16, [r.sup.2] = .03, p < .05), and performance (r =. 18, [r.sup.2] = .03, p < .01) information. The hypothesized relationships between extroversion and overt performance (r = .03, n.s.) and task (r = .10, n.s.) were not statistically significant.

Hypothesis 4 proposed a negative relationship between neuroticism and overt information-seeking frequency. This hypothesis was partially supported. The analysis indicated a significant relationship between neuroticism and the overt method of seeking performance (r =-.24, [r.sup.2] = .06, p < .001) information. All other relationships were not statistically significant.

Hypothesis 5 predicted extroversion would be negatively related to perceptions of social costs. Partially supported, the analysis indicated extroversion was negatively associated with newcomers' perceptions of relational social costs (r =-.44, [r.sup.2] =. 19, p < .000). Specifically, as newcomers reported being more gregarious and assertive, they were less likely to perceive social costs associated with seeking relational information.

Hypothesis 6 predicted neuroticism would be positively associated with perceptions of social costs. This hypothesis was supported with respect to social costs associated with seeking performance (r = .52, [r.sup.2] = .27, p < .000) and task (r =. 16, [r.sup.2] = .025, p < .05) information.

Research Question 1 sought information regarding the ways in which social cost perceptions might mediate the relationships between the Big Five personality traits and newcomer information-seeking behavior. A mediating variable explains the relationship between the other two variables; therefore, mediation only takes place "to the extent that it [mediating variable] accounts for the relation between the predictor and the criterion" (Baron & Kenny, 1986, p. 1176). More specifically, for mediation to occur, three criteria must be met (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Judd & Kenny, 1981). First, a significant relationship must be present between the independent variable and the dependent variable. Second, the independent variable and mediator must be significantly related. Last, a significant relationship between the mediating variable and the dependent variable must exist (see Figure 1 for model). Sobel's (1982) analysis for mediation (1) was performed on those regression models fulfilling these three criteria. A model achieves partial mediation when Sobel's analysis finds a significant indirect effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable through the mediator (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Sobel, 1982). However, total mediation is achieved if this analysis returns a nonsignificant indirect effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable after considering the mediating variable. Analyses of Research Question 1 suggest partial and total mediation of the trait overt information-seeking relationships by perceived social costs.

First, the data indicated the partial mediation of the extroversion-overt relational information-seeking relationship by perceived relational social costs (p < .000). Specifically, there were significant relationships between all three variables, and when perceived social costs were added to the model, the relationship between extroversion and overt relational information seeking remained significant. Second, total mediation was revealed in the overt performance information-seeking model when neuroticism was assessed. As noted in Table 2, a significant relationship exists between the independent and dependent variable ([r.sup.2] = -.20; p < .01); however, when the mediator was added to the model, the relationship became non-significant ([r.sup.2] = -.05; p > .05). The addition of perceived performance social costs to the regression model confirmed full explanation of the relationship between neuroticism and overt performance information seeking (z value = 4.946; p > .05). Finally, analyses specified total mediation of the conscientiousness-overt task information-seeking model by perceived task social costs. Expressly, the variables met the aforementioned criteria when the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable ([r.sup.2] =. 18; p < .05) became nonsignificant upon mediation ([r.sup.2] =. 12; p > .05). Further analysis noted that Sobel's test confirmed perceived task social costs fully mediated this relationship (z value = 0.218;p > .05).

DISCUSSION

A little more than a decade ago, Miller and Jablin (1991) theorized that upon organizational entry, individual differences and situational factors concurrently influence newcomer perceptions of social costs and information-seeking tactics. In an attempt to build upon the proposed theoretical model, many authors have examined several situational predictors (Miller, 1996; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995). Recently, however, the incorporation of trait antecedents has been examined. This maturation in the literature is noteworthy. Nevertheless, our understanding of how traits influence the overall information-seeking process is still minimal.

The present study extends our understanding of this process by assessing information-seeking behaviors using the Big Five construct to measure personality. As such, this investigation is a useful extension to the literature because, as Hogan (1991) notes, assessments of personality's impact on behavior should never solely rely on one dimension (e.g., tolerance for ambiguity, self-esteem, or self-efficacy), as is prevalent in much of the trait-based information-seeking literature. In addition, House et al. (1996) argue that when assessing the impact of a broad measure on behavior it helps to use a midlevel predisposition or attitudinal variable (e.g., perceived social costs) clearly linked to the outcome to provide a more detailed assessment of the outcome variable. More specifically, they explain that "It is necessary to give a more elaborate delineation of predispositions of the midlevel types, which fall somewhere between personality and cognitions, but which are theoretically linked to specific behaviors of interest in organizational context" (p. 210). Therefore, by assessing both the direct influence of the traits on perceived social costs and the indirect influence of traits on information seeking when mediated by social costs perceptions, the current study makes another contribution to the literature. As a result, new directions for study and useful insights for theorists and practitioners are made available.

Personality and Information Seeking

As expected, several personality traits were associated with the information-seeking preferences of organizational newcomers. As indexed by the regression models, traits accounted for significant variance in overt task information seeking. In particular, when mediated by perceived task social costs, conscientiousness helped explain newcomer overt task information-seeking behaviors. As conscientiousness increased, social costs decreased, resulting in a modest increase in overt task information seeking. This result may reflect the conscientious newcomer's dependability, thoroughness, and achievement orientation. Due to their will to achieve, they seek information overtly to ensure high performance. Relatedly, due to their drive and orientation toward accomplishment and thoroughness, conscientious newcomers were also more likely to overtly seek performance information. This finding suggests that conscientious newcomers are innately motivated toward success and they view information gathering as part of the process to success. This result is consistent with Ashford's (1993) finding that those concerned about performance were more likely to overtly seek information.

Conversely, due to their high perceptions of social costs, individuals high in neuroticism were less likely to overtly seek performance information. In fact, Herold and Fedor (1998) note that those with certain traits may avoid exposing themselves to negative feedback. Because overt information-seeking behavior may expose the neurotic to negative feedback regarding performance, he or she chooses to reduce the amount of performance information he or she seeks using overt methods. Of the performance information-seeking relationships, the openness to experience association was most puzzling. Specifically, those high in openness to experience were less likely to seek performance information using covert methods. Based on their intellectually progressive nature, theory suggests that they would be driven to satisfy their natural curiosity. However, because of their newcomer status, they may feel they have to prove their worth to their coworkers, possibly resulting in a view that they are the information giver as opposed to the information seeker.

The data from the overt relational information-seeking analyses were consistent with the other overt findings, but a bit stronger due to the significant and ubiquitous contributions of extroversion. For example, extroversion also contributed to significant variance in covert relational information-seeking outcomes. Taken together with the findings regarding overt information seeking, extroverts sought relational information using a variety of methods and tactics. Perhaps because they felt at ease in interpersonal situations, they used whatever means available to gather relational information. However, these results are inconsistent with previous literature. Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller (2000) found that extroverts did not seek informotion, whereas the current study found several significant and positive results. This could be explained by their use of the Major and Koslowski (1997) measure of information seeking that fails to differentiate between the methods of information seeking.

In sum, when these results are viewed in the context of the measures utilized, the findings are promising, particularly for those interested in the impact of extroversion on self-socialization processes. In their foundational work, Landy and Becker (1987) call for more midrange-level theorizing to ensure outcome-specific predictors are not too global and not too restrictive. Although related studies have used more domain-specific constructs, these studies may have been too restrictive and, consequently, largely unsuccessful in delineating consistent findings. The current study used the Big Five measure of personality, a global construct of personality, to assess specific changes in the information-seeking behaviors of organizational newcomers. Nevertheless, although it is difficult to predict specific behavior with a broad measure (George, 1996; Herold & Fedor, 1998), overall, the Big Five were successful. The benefit of this analysis is further detailed in the following section regarding the mediating role of social cost perceptions.

Social Cost Perceptions

Heightened social cost perceptions are typical for new employees (Fedor et al., 1992; Miller & Jablin, 1991; Morrison, 1993a; Morrison & Bies, 1991; Teboul, 1995), and indirectly affect productivity through information seeking (Morrison, 1993b). However, if perceptions of social costs were solely dependent on the situation, as previous literature suggests (Miller, 1996; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995), altering the situation (e.g., organizational tenure, perceptions of group norms, and coworker feelings) could easily reduce them. In other words, as these organizational elements changed, so would perceptions of social costs. As mentioned earlier, perceptions of social costs have been historically analyzed as situational constituents (Miller, 1996; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995). The present results indicate that traits also contribute to social cost perceptions.

Of the more interesting relationships, neuroticism played a modest role in influencing newcomer perceptions of task social costs. This result is not surprising in light of what is known about neuroticism. Individuals scoring high on this dimension are prone to "psychological distress, unrealistic ideas, excessive cravings and urges, and maladaptive coping responses" (Peidmont, 1998, p. 84). They typically approach interpersonal interaction with anxiety and, as noted by Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller (2000), are likely to negatively frame organizational interactions. This all translates into a perception that one's image or interests will be in jeopardy if task information is sought from coworkers or superiors. The present data suggest that coworkers and supervisors of low neurotics can safely assume low levels of perceived task social costs leading to a greater likelihood of information seeking.

In contrast, conscientious newcomers were less likely to perceive social costs associated with seeking task information than those low in conscientiousness. These findings are supported by research suggesting that highly conscientious individuals are orientated toward accomplishment and thoroughness. Thus, it is not surprising that they have fewer perceptions of task social costs.

Perceptions of performance social costs were also positively associated with neuroticism. The results appear consistent with Peidmont's (1998) analysis of individuals high in neuroticism being "easily embarrassed," "prone to feeling inferior," and "unable to cope with stress" (pp. 85-86). Because performance information is often tied to the action or "inaction" of the individual, a neurotic employee would likely lack confidence in his or her performance and worry about the prospect of negative feedback. This finding supports Herold and Fedor's (1998) assertion that "Cognitive processes associated with the interpretation of performance-related cues or information, by virtue of their intra-psychic nature, are clearly prone to be influenced by individual differences" (p. 225). Even though overtly seeking performance information could benefit one's image indirectly and help improve performance by providing necessary behavior-altering feedback (Ashford & Tsui, 1991; Miller, 1996), neurotics perceive these interpersonal interactions as high in social costs, resulting in a decrease in overt information seeking.

Although not the strongest personality-social cost relationship, extroversion's relationship with relational social costs was the one most likely to be evoked within an information-seeking environment. Analysis indicated extroverts were less likely to perceive social costs associated with seeking relational information. This relationship is logical given an extrovert's positive emotions, optimism, exuberance, and passion for social contact (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Piedmont, 1998). As expected, they viewed relational information seeking from coworkers and supervisors as low in social costs, providing consistency with findings noting that extroverts seek out relationship-building activities (e.g., attending holiday parties, joining the company softball team) (Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000).

In sum, the results contribute to the literature by indicating that social cost perceptions are associated with traits. This is an important finding, especially for individuals high in neuroticism who may not see any change in their perceived social cost regardless of the change in situation. Moreover, because social costs perceptions have been linked to a decrease in overt information seeking both here and in other studies, organizational veterans may have to be more proactive information givers to ensure affected newcomers receive accurate and timely task and performance information.

Despite the fact that traits are associated with social costs perceptions, added variance could be accounted for by other traits not examined in this study. More specifically, future investigations should use the independent facets of the NEO-PI-R measure of personality to assess social costs. Although the NEO-Form S is an excellent global scale, the NEO-PI-R provides more domain-specific analysis, allowing for more detailed trait assessments to be performed. Additionally, Eysenck, Eysenck, and Barrett's (1985) measure of psychoticism (from the EPQ-R Scale), may similarly help explain perceptions of social costs. One who is prone to psychotic tendencies, much like the neurotic, would be expected to perceive most interactions as high in social costs.

Another way to account for more variance is to assess the moderating effects of situational variables on the trait-social cost relationship. In particular, situational investigations may find that supportive communicative cultures and organizational identification (also termed person-organization fit in other literatures) play a moderating role. For example, organizational veterans may be able to alter the supportiveness of a neurotic's environment via enhanced proactivity, answering unasked questions and offering positive reinforcement. In addition, research may find person-organization fit, the extent to which one's values and beliefs are consistent with those of the larger organization, moderates the neuroticism-perceived social costs relationship. One may be prone to drastic mood swings, yet if his or her core values are supported by the organization, he or she may be more relaxed and positive during interpersonal exchange. However, as fit decreases, social costs are likely to increase (Bauer et al., 1998) and may be more dramatic for the neurotic. Therefore, it is recommended that future investigations examine traits and situations that may contribute to perceived social costs in organizational newcomers.

The final important contribution of this study is that it introduces social cost perceptions as mediating agents between traits and information seeking. As noted above, when using a broad measure to assess behavior, it helps to use a predisposition or attitudinal variable related to the outcome variable to provide a more detailed assessment of the model (House et al., 1996). To this end, study findings indicate significant variance is explained within the overt relational analysis when relational social costs are included in the model. This suggests that organizational practitioners can make more informed decisions regarding expending energy on the provision of relational information depending on the level of extroversion observed in various employees. Significant variance was also explained when social costs mediated the overt performance and task information-seeking regression models.

Implications for Theory and Practice

This study makes two valuable contributions to the literature. First, it provides added theoretical grounding concerning the specific links between traits and information-seeking behaviors. More specifically, the empirical links between personality, social costs perceptions, and specific information-seeking behaviors are illuminated and help draw attention to this newly examined relationship. Second, this is the first study to assess the mediating effects of social costs on the trait-information-seeking relationship. As noted above, social costs do mediate certain relationships; therefore, as the information-seeking literature develops, these relationships should be considered.

Though modest, the results of this investigation have important implications for communication practitioners. To enhance productivity (Morrison, 1993b), role development, and the regulation of newcomer behavior (Morrison, 1993a), some employees (e.g., individuals high in neuroticism) may need information continually provided to them whereas others (e.g., conscientious employees) will be more likely to proactively seek information. This is in part due to the trait-social costs perception relationship. For example, given neuroticism's relationship with perceptions of performance social costs and the relationship between performance social costs and information seeking in this and previous studies (Ashford, 1986; Ashford & Cummings, 1983; Fedor et al., 1992; Miller, 1996; Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995), understanding that newcomers with varying performance social costs will use differential approaches to seeking information should be of particular interest to today's employers. And given the longevity and stability of traits, and the inability of an employer to alter the personality of a newcomer (Costa & McCrae, 1994), traits are central to understanding the motivation behind certain newcomer behaviors. Moreover, if an employer wants to understand how newcomers approach information seeking across various contexts and times, traits may provide the only solid foundation from which to predict these behaviors. (2)

Of potential importance to business communication practitioners are the implications for geographically dispersed newcomers or those who use computer mediated communication to facilitate business interactions. Understanding the newcomer's traits may provide important indications regarding the level to which he or she will seek information using overt versus covert tactics. And given that some technology (e.g., e-mail, voice mail) is less rich, meaning it provides less capacity to transfer information or convey meaning (e.g., immediate feedback, provide channels for nonverbal communication), a neurotic newcomer, for example, who communicates via technology may use covert tactics or not seek information at all. This has important implications for their role development, role clarity, and performance. Knowing if a newcomer is neurotic or introverted would provide business communication practitioners with a reason to use differential approaches to information dispersal, thereby reducing uncertainty and avoiding potential communication and performance problems.

Limitations

Although previous studies explained little variance in information seeking, this study's results are more promising given the addition of a global measure of personality and perceptions of social costs. Nevertheless, this study was limited in three respects. First, although the use of university employees helps diversify the literature's sample populations while answering Bauer et al.'s (1998) call for the examination of a greater diversity of occupations, it does limit the generalizability of the findings. What occurs in one business sector may not always apply to other business sectors. However, there is no evidence that university newcomers differ substantially from newcomers in other industries with respect to uncertainty and information-seeking processes. In fact, the participants in this study generally behaved as predicted by extant theory and empirical research. Accordingly, this limitation likely had minimal impact on the findings. Future studies, however, should attempt to extend these findings in other populations to increase generalizability.

Second, the use of self-report data lends this study to the percept-percept bias. Without objective measures of personality assessments and information-seeking outcomes, participants could provide inaccurate or socially acceptable responses. To help alleviate this problem, future studies could conduct the personality, perceived social costs, and information-seeking assessments at separate times. To further mitigate the percept-percept bias, objective measures of either the Big Five or information seeking could be used. However, to date, the only genuinely accurate indicator of the Big Five and perceived social costs are self-reports of those experiences (though clinical scales exist for the Big Five; see Peidmont, 1998, for a detailed discussion). Thus, bias prevention must come from outcome assessments. Respondents to an objective measure of information seeking would likely include coworkers, supervisors, customers, and in the case of some covert tactics, external acquaintances (Hanser & Muchinsky, 1978; Herold & Fedor, 1998; Miller, 1996). However, as noted earlier, these sources may be very unreliable due to unobserved and unattended newcomer information-seeking behaviors (Morrison, 1993a). To date, no study has attempted to assess the reliability of objective informationseeking measures in comparison to self-report measures, thereby making this fruitful ground for future investigation.

Finally, longitudinal assessments of information-seeking behavior have become the norm in much of the socialization literature (Bauer et al., 1998). However, no evidence exists noting variability in information seeking over time. In fact, Morrison (1993b) discovered stability in information-seeking behavior. Though social costs affect information seeking, they likely do not explain its stability information seeking across time because social costs increase over time (Sias & Wyers, 2001; Teboul, 1995). It seems more plausible that a stable predictor, potentially a personality trait, is most responsible for this constancy. As research continues to develop in this area, it may be useful to assess personality's impact on information-seeking behavior over time.

Table 1. Results of Regression Analyses

Independent Variable       [beta]     t

Overt relational model
  Conscientious               .1     1.35
  Neuroticism                 .1     1.35
  Extroversion                .16    2.04 *
  Agreeeableness              .06    0.85
  Openness                    .03    0.39
  Relational SC              -.31   -4.15 **
  (Constant)                 1.64    1.98 *
  R = .42 **
  [R.sub.2] = .19 **
  F = 7.16 **
  df = 6, 180

Overt tasks model
  Conscientious               .08    0.93
  Neuroticism                -.04   -0.5
  Extroversion                .07    0.99
  Agreeeableness              .08    1.11
  Openness                    .04    0.54
  Task SC                    -.26   -3.66 **
  (Constant)                 2.97    3.97 **
  R = .3 **
  [R.sub.2] = .12 **
  F = 3.95 **
  df = 6, 180

Overt performance model
  Conscientious               .08    0.97
  Neuroticism                -.05   -0.58
  Extroversion               -.01   -0.18
  Agreeeableness              .09    1.14
  Openness                   -.03   -0.4
  Performance SC             -.31   -3.76 **
  (Constant)                 3.63    5.02 **
  R = .34 **
  [R.sub.2] = .14 **
  F = 4.83 **
  df = 6, 180

Covert relational model
  Conscientious              -.13   -1.51
  Neuroticism                -.14   -1.8
  Extroversion                .26    3.17 **
  Agreeeableness             -.03   -0.4
  Openness                   -.08   -1.12
  Relational SC               .09    1.17
  (Constant)                 3.23    4.78 **
  R = 0.28 **
  [R.sub.2] = .08 **
  F = 2.64 **
  df = 6, 180

Covert tasks model
  Conscientious              0       0
  Neuroticism                0.01    0.07
  Extroversion                .19    2.46 **
  Agreeeableness             -.13   -1.64
  Openness                   -.03   -0.43
  Task SC                     .03    0.35
  (Constant)                 3.16    6.82 **
  R = .2
  [R.sub.2] = .04
  F = 1.36
  df = 6, 180

Covert performance model
  Conscientious              -.11   -1.36
  Neuroticism                -.08   -0.95
  Extroversion                .16    2.16 **
  Agreeeableness              .07    0.87
  Openness                   -.12   -1.61
  Performance SC             -.14   -1.7
  (Constant)                 3.71    6.49 **
  R = .29 **
  [R.sub.2] = .08 **
  F = 2.8 **
  df = 6, 180

Note: SC = social costs.

* p<.05.

** p<.01.

Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations

                             M      SD        1         2

1. Conscientious            3.60   0.56 **
2. Neuroticism              1.90   0.77      -.40 **
3. Extroversion             3.54   0.61       .05       .03
4. Agreeableness            3.70   0.60       .30 **   -.07
5. Openness                 3.53   0.58       .13 *    -.06
6. Overt relational IS      3.22   0.95       .07       .08
7. Covert relational IS     3.12   0.73      -.07      -.08
8. Overt tasks IS           3.79   0.85       .18 **   -.12
9. Covert tasks IS          3.24   0.50      -.04       .03
10. Overt performance IS    3.57   0.85       .18 **   -.25 **
11. Covert performance IS   3.29   0.65      -.03      -.11
12. Tasks SC                1.93   0.87      -.20 **    .16 *
13. Performance SC          1.79   0.77      -.21 **    .52 **
14. Relational SC           2.01   0.89       .08      -.08

                             3         4        5        6

1. Conscientious
2. Neuroticism
3. Extroversion
4. Agreeableness             .23 **
5. Openness                 -.12      -.06
6. Overt relational IS       .31 **    .15 *   -.02
7. Covert relational IS      .21 **    .00      .11      .28 **
8. Overt tasks IS            .10       .15 *    .04      .16 *
9. Covert tasks IS           .16 *    -.09     -.05      .17 *
10. Overt performance IS     .02       .09      .02      .30 **
11. Covert performance IS    .19 **    .07     -.13 *    .07
12. Tasks SC                -.03      -.09     -.02      .08
13. Performance SC          -.04       .07     -.12      .07
14. Relational SC           -.44 **   -.08      .12     -.38 **

                             7         8         9         10

1. Conscientious
2. Neuroticism
3. Extroversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Openness
6. Overt relational IS
7. Covert relational IS
8. Overt tasks IS            .05
9. Covert tasks IS           .40 **    .13 *
10. Overt performance IS     .11       .18 **    .15 *
11. Covert performance IS    .60 **    .04       .53 **    .13
12. Tasks SC                 .02      -.29 **    .03       .01
13. Performance SC          -.15 *    -.06      -.14 *    -.34
14. Relational SC            .03       .12       .05      -.19

                             11       12       13

1. Conscientious
2. Neuroticism
3. Extroversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Openness
6. Overt relational IS
7. Covert relational IS
8. Overt tasks IS
9. Covert tasks IS
10. Overt performance IS
11. Covert performance IS
12. Tasks SC                -.07
13. Performance SC          -.15 *    .16 *
14. Relational SC            .00     -.08     -.03

Note: IS = information seeking; SC = social costs.

* p<.05.

** p<.01.

NOTES

(1.) Sobel's (1982) test was used to calculate tests of mediation, z value = a x b / SQRT([b.sup.2] x [S.sub.a.sup.2] + [a.sup.2] x [s.sub.b.sup.2]

(2.) The person versus situation debate acknowledges the unique contributions of stable, enduring traits and environmental situations to human behavior (Epstein & O'Brien, 1985; House, Shane, & Herold, 1996). However, according to Mischel (1984), much of the evidence of a trait explanation to behavior is weak because personality will only be a valid predictor, if it is both temporally stable and cross-situationally consistent. However, although temporal stability (the same behavior performed in the same situation over time) is possible, cross-situational consistency (the same behavior performed in different situations over time) is a much higher burden to meet (Daly & Bippus, 1998). Epstein and O'Brien (1985) agreed, noting that single acts of behavior tend to be "low in reliability and low in generality" (pg. 532). Thus, traits cannot predict one single act. Instead, when trying to predict multiple acts across situations and time (e.g., information seeking), traits are more effective.

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Michael Tidwell (Ph.D., Washington State University, 2002) is an assistant professor of organizational behavior in the Division of Business at Truman State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Michael Tidwell, Truman State University, Division of Business, Kirksville, MO 63501; e-mail: mtidwell@truman.edu. Patricia Sias (Ph.D., University of Texas at Austin, 1993) is an associate professor of communication studies in the Edward R. Murrow School of Communication at Washington State University.