Design and implementation issues in socializing (and resocializing) employees.

Socialization processes have important implications for employees' behavior and attitudes toward work. For example, the rate at which newcomers become adjusted affects how quickly they can become fully functional members of the organization. Similarly, the amount of commitment they feel towards

the employing organization can be affected by the type of socialization newcomers experience. We discuss socialization issues in the broadest sense to mean aspects of initial entry, training, orientation and the early stages of organizational socialization. The prescriptions and issues surrounding newcomer socialization that we discuss are based on two assumptions.

1. Rapid rates of adjustment and high levels of organizational commitment are desirable goals that can result from particular socialization practices.(1)

2. People are not all the same. People differ in ways that cause them to respond differently to organizational practices and procedures. Therefore, socialization processes that acknowledge differences among people will be more likely to result in desired goals than those that treat all people as if they were the same.

There are several implications of these assumptions for the design and implementation of orientation and socialization processes. The first is that "the" correct socialization process to use will depend upon characteristics of the job and of the newly hired employees. This, in turn, implies that organizations will have to determine the relevant differences among employees and then tailor socialization procedures to fit individual newcomers or groups of newcomers. These implications suggest that organizations invest time and energy in a reexamination of current socialization practices to determine to what extent major changes may be needed. Organizational decision makers need to keep in mind the benefits to be gained from more rapid adjustment of newcomers and higher levels of commitment when deciding to commit resources to the enhancement of the newcomer socialization process.(2)

Diagnosing Individual Newcomers: What Are the Differences That Make a Difference?

There are two important characteristics that differentiate newcomers and that have implications for the design of socialization processes. The first of these is the extent to which the newcomer is experienced, and the second is the nature of the newcomer's experience. Specifically, the nature of the experience is the degree to which the new job/organization is similar to previous jobs/organizations in the individual's past. By similar we don't necessarily mean the job titles are the same. Rather we mean the extent to which the skills and knowledge from previous jobs readily transfer to the new situation. In general, the longer the experience and the more relevant to the new situation, the less socialization will be necessary to speed adjustment and develop appropriate performance levels.

There are a number of specific ways in which experience relates to newcomer socialization. First, and most obviously, the more newcomers already know that transfers to performing the new job, the faster they will adjust and begin making real contributions in terms of job performance. However, research has shown(3) that experience has additional implications for rate of adjustment as well. For example, experience produces well-developed schemas (mental maps) which enable people to acquire new knowledge at a rapid pace. This occurs because the schemas allow for accurate discrimination among important and unimportant information or cues. Thus, experience implies not only the need to acquire less information but also the ability to acquire new knowledge quickly and efficiently by decreasing attention to unimportant new information.

Experience also provides schemas that allow people to determine which aspects of their knowledge are relevant to which aspects of the new situation. Trial-and-error is reduced for those who can more readily discern the crucial similarities and differences between their past and present jobs.

Finally, relevant experience functions to decrease the number and intensity of surprises (or upending experiences) that newcomers encounter. Fewer surprises means that anxiety stays at more manageable levels and people spend less time and energy seeking explanatory information about surprising events. Thus, relevant experience contributes to the rate of adjustment because: a) it reduces the amount of new information necessary to perform effectively, b) it enables people to acquire what information is needed more efficiently through the use of schemas that help them differentiate between important and less important new information, c) it enables people to recognize under what circumstances their previous knowledge is relevant to their new situation, and d) it shields them from the anxiety associated with unpredictable and inexplicable events.(4) These effects of experience on learning and transfer of knowledge produce different implications for the manner in which newcomers, who vary in their length of previous experience, should be socialized.

If length and relevance are considered to be two independent dimensions of experience, then comparisons along these two dimensions yield four categories of newcomers: those with a little, irrelevant experience; those with a little, relevant experience; those with a lot of irrelevant experience; and those with a lot of relevant experience. While these categories are rough approximations of newcomer differences on the experience dimensions, we believe they are sufficiently precise to serve as adequate guides to design decisions.

Types of Newcomers and Appropriate Strategies for Socialization

Using the two dimensions of experience discussed earlier (length of experience and relevance) provides a category scheme for types of newcomers. Those with little or no relevant experience are termed neophytes. Those with a little relevant experience are called initiates. Those with a substantial amount of largely irrelevant experience are called converts. And those with a substantial amount of relevant experience are called veterans. A precise specification of what constitutes "a little" or "a substantial amount" is not undertaken here because different jobs require different lengths of time to master. For example, six months experience as a word processor may be a substantial amount because the job is simple and easy to learn. Whereas six months experience as an assistant purchasing agent may be very little because the job is complex and varies widely from firm to firm. Similarly, the determination of what constitutes relevant experience is a decision that must be made within the context of the new job by a person who is familiar with the newcomer's experience and the new job's requirements.

Design Principles for Socializing Neophytes

In general, socialization processes that are designed for neophytes can be based upon the assumption that newcomers are blank slates. That is, very little effort needs to be directed at helping neophytes let go of previous experience. The primary goals of the socialization process for neophytes are acquisition of job and organization knowledge, and reduction of the anxiety that neophytes typically experience. The sooner the anxiety associated with being a neophyte can be significantly reduced, the sooner the neophyte can focus more closely on job performance. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways, including formal instruction in classroom settings, informal, on-the-job training, use of "buddy systems" that pair neophytes with more experienced employees, and so on. Many traditional orientation and socialization programs in business seem to be designed with "blank slate" assumptions that are truly appropriate only for neophytes. The main design consideration to keep in mind is the efficient and effective use of techniques that will help neophytes acquire job-relevant, organization-specific information as quickly as is practical. Acquisition of information reduces anxiety and speeds up the adaptation process.(4) Additional direct emphasis on anxiety reduction may also be beneficial since high levels of anxiety impede learning.

Design Principles for Socializing Initiates

In general, initiates possess more job-relevant knowledge than neophytes and can be expected to be able to focus sooner on job performance with less direct job-oriented training. Thus, the initial socialization experience can be shorter and/or less intensive. Socialization can be more effective and efficient if initiates are assessed with respect to the actual level of job relevant knowledge, so that time isn't wasted reviewing what is already known. This assessment could be formal (a paper and pencil test that is scored against pre-determined criteria) or informal (conversations with the recruiter, a Human Resource Department employee, and/or the individual's immediate superior). Initiates are less likely than neophytes to be troubled by high anxiety levels and so less direct attention at reducing anxiety is necessary.

Design Principles for Socializing Converts

Converts will require a great deal of effort devoted to acquiring relevant job/organization knowledge and to unfreezing the attachment to previous experience. Unfreezing refers to upending experiences that can have the effect of shaking the confidence that converts may have in the relevance of their previous experience.(5) While some converts may be expected to realize the lack of relevance of previous experience, this is difficult for most until they realize what is expected in the new role. That is, many converts may assume that some of their previous experience can be transferred to the new job. While this may be true, it is not the case that they will have a clear picture of what will or won't transfer, until they are familiar with the new job and organization. Therefore, it is in the organization's best interests to avoid a lengthy period of trial and error learning on the part of converts. Rather, converts should be exposed to a thorough overview of what their new job entails. Socialization processes should focus on helping converts sort out what previous knowledge will and will not transfer to their new job. They need ready access to informed insiders who can and will answer the many questions converts will raise in their attempt to determine how the present job differs from past experience.

The socialization process for converts can also be facilitated through divestiture experiences. These experiences are designed to formally and symbolically mark the transition out of the old role. For example, when current employees leave, letters of resignation, going-away parties, gift presentations and the like all recognize the leaving of the old role. Obviously, the hiring organization cannot orchestrate divestiture experiences post hoc for newcomers. However, the hiring organization can inquire to what extent, if any, such experiences have already occurred. If they have occurred, the employing organization can assume that converts are further along in the role leaving process.

It may also be helpful in fully accepting the new role to engage converts in investiture processes once they have made the transition into the new job.(6) Symbolic recognition of their new role and status can be conferred in a variety of ways. For example, emblems of membership such as badges or nameplates can be presented with a bit of formality by the immediate superior. The superior should specifically point out the significance of the presentation, i.e., "now you are one of us." Converts can be entrusted with "inside" information, be let in on folklore and jargon, and be included in casual get-togethers as signs of their new role and acceptance. While these kinds of experiences can help any newcomer feel more adjusted, they are particularly critical for converts who have the longest, least relevant history to overcome in order to take on and internalize new role requirements. Table 1 summarizes some of the foregoing in graphic form.

Table 1
Focus and Agents of Socialization

Group                          Main Focus of Socialization Process

Primary Agents                 Reduction of anxiety
Neophytes                      Acquisition of new knowledge

HRD, Co-workers and            Initiates
Immediate superior             Acquisition of new knowledge

Co-workers and                 Unfreezing
Immediate superior             Determination of which knowledge
Converts                       will be relevant to new job

HRD and Immediate superior     Good job performance based
Veterans                       on previous experience

Immediate superior
and self

Design Principles for Socializing Veterans

As a group, veterans require the least socialization of any of the four groups. They have the longest, most relevant experience that should enable them to "hit the ground running" when they take on the new job. Included in this category may be people who are internal transfers from other parts of the organization.(7) Internal transfer veterans could be expected to know all the "nuts and bolts" of organizational functioning -- everything from the details of the retirement plan to the folklore surrounding the company president. Internal transfers represent the most extreme form of the veteran new hire.

With all veterans, even internal transfers, it is still wise to spend a little time understanding the veteran's approach to the job. This could be accomplished in one or two conversations between the veteran and the immediate superior. The superior can then decide how much, if any, direct job training is required. With most veterans, the best approach may be a very reactive one, in which superiors and co-workers make themselves available to answer questions on an as-needed basis. With veterans, the assumption is that they know what to do and how to do it. All that is required is access to job or organization-specific information on an occasional basis. Unlike neophytes who require lots of job and organization-specific information and a great deal of attention devoted to reducing anxiety, veterans are much more knowledgeable and less anxious from the beginning. Therefore, their socialization experience can be shorter and less intense.

Increasing Commitment and Strategies for Socialization

There are some practices that organizations should undertake in order to increase commitment regardless of the type of newcomer who is hired. One general strategy is to impress upon the newcomer the high quality and high status aspects of the organization. If these claims about the organization are credible, employees will be more willing to identify with the organization, and identification is the psychological hallmark of commitment.(8) This strategy is best employed at the earliest possible stage of socialization when newcomers are most anxious and most eager to form attachments and cement their sense of situational identity. Neophytes may be most likely to respond well to this strategy, primarily because they tend to be the most anxious group who is in most need of the reassurance that identification with the organization can provide.

A second general strategy centers around creating a desire in newcomers to reciprocate the organization's generosity. To the extent that an organization can provide newcomers with valued privileges, status symbols, conveniences, freedom from restrictive work rules and pleasant working conditions, a sense of inequity may be created. That is, newcomers may feel they don't yet deserve the organization's generosity and this fosters commitment because employees feel the need to reciprocate.(9) Good job performance and extra effort may also result as employees attempt to "earn" what they have received and reduce feelings of inequity by giving more.

In this vein, some newcomers are better candidates than others for fostering commitment through reciprocity. Specifically, newcomers who must relocate in order to accept a new job, particularly those with family attachments, present an opportunity (some would say an obligation) for the employing organization to deal with the whole person during the transition.(10) That is, people who move to accept a new job need help in various aspects of adjustment to the new community, in addition to the "standard" level of help required in adjusting to a new job/organization. Everything from finding a reliable real estate agent to locating good schools and religious institutions becomes problematic. Dual career concerns can also be extremely difficult to address. To the extent that the employing organization provides support and help with relocation, employee commitment is increased. Of course, newcomers don't have to be relocating or have family in order to feel overwhelmed by the organization's generosity. However, the experience of being a newcomer to the organization who is also new to the community and whose job is causing disruption to the family puts these newcomers in a particularly vulnerable position. This increased vulnerability paves the way for increased levels of organizational commitment if the employing organization provides significant help to the newcomer and his/her family during the transition.

Implementation Issues

Responsibility for socialization should be shared among the Human Resource Department (HRD), the newcomer's immediate superior, the newcomer's co-workers and the newcomer. Practical considerations and individual differences among organizations should dictate which individual or group has responsibility for which socialization activity in every case. However, the roles discussed below represent one possible approach.

HRD should probably take the lead in diagnosing the characteristics of newcomers in order to determine who are the neophytes, initiates, converts and veterans. This can be accomplished relatively easily if guidelines have first been established in consultation with incumbents and their superiors for all the relevant job categories. For example, through interviews with the appropriate employees, examination of job descriptions and other relevant documentation, HRD may be able to establish criteria for judging the length and type of experience necessary to categorize newcomers appropriately. It may also be both efficient and effective for HRD to assume most of the responsibility for designing and implementing neophyte socialization programs. HRD may also want to design (or suggest various approaches for) the other forms of socialization as well. However, the more participation HRD is able to get from line managers and operative employees in making design decisions, the greater the understanding and acceptance of the processes among those who will be implementing them.

Trainers and line managers who act as the supervisors of newcomers may take the primary responsibility for imparting job knowledge. Co-workers and even subordinates (particularly secretaries and administrative assistants) can also be effective socialization agents. Co-workers can also be particularly helpful in reducing newcomers' anxieties day-to-day on the job. Co-workers should be encouraged to behave supportively, to offer encouragement and provide assistance whenever requested. Often newcomers are more willing to ask for help from co-workers than from superiors, and superiors are frequently not as readily available as co-workers.

Finally, individual newcomers themselves must take some responsibility for the success and duration of their own socialization. This is especially true for converts and veterans. Organizations must do what they can to facilitate socialization by designing and delivering programs that are "user friendly" and based on sound theory and research. But newcomers must seek out information and be alert to the organization's attempts to provide information. Newcomers must also be willing to exercise initiative in filling in the gaps that inevitably remain in even the most well-designed and well-executed program of socialization. Both the organization and the individual benefit from this partnership approach.

Each organization will have to examine a number of factors before deciding to implement a major overhaul of whatever socialization practices it is currently using in order to adopt some or all of the approach suggested here. In particular, organizational decision makers will want to consider questions such as how many employees are hired or transferred internally each year; how well the present approach is working with respect to speed of initial adjustment, appropriate job performance and levels of commitment; and the likely costs and benefits to be realized through change. One way to approach this process might involve an audit of socialization practices and outcomes. HRD should find out exactly how newcomer orientation is being conducted throughout the organization. A comparison of these practices, which may vary considerably across geographic locations or job type, to the results of probationary performance reviews may point the way to appropriate interventions. For example, if some socialization practices (or lack thereof) in some area of the organization are resulting in a high wash-out rate after the probationary period, HRD may want to focus its further analysis and probable intervention at that location. It may be that relatively minor changes may yield substantial benefits for both individual employees and the organization as a whole.

Endnotes

1. See John P. Wanous, Organizational Entry: Recruitment, Selection, Orientation and Socialization of Newcomers, (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, second edition, 1992) for a complete overview of costs and benefits associated with staffing.

2. For an excellent overview of matching business strategy with appropriate Human Resource practices, see "Linking Competitive Strategy with Human Resource Management Practices," Schuler, R.S. and Jackson, S.W., The Academy of Management Executive, 1987, 1, 207-218.

3. See Meglino, B.M., DeNisi, A.S. and Ravlin, E.C. "Effects of Previous Job Exposure and Subsequent Job Status on the Functioning of a Realistic Job Preview," Personnel Psychology, 1993, 46, 803-822 and Kirschenbaum, S.S., "Influence of Experience on Information-Gathering Strategies," Journal of Applied Psychology, 1992, 77, 343-352 for a discussion of these issues.

4. See Louis, M.R., "Surprise and Sense-Making: What Newcomers Experience in entering unfamiliar organizational settings, Administrative Science Quarterly, 1980, 25, 226-251.

5. See Schein, E., "The Individual, the Organization and the Career: A Conceptual Scheme," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1971, 7, 401-426 for a classic piece on individual careers in organizations.

6. See Feldman, D., "The Role of Initiation Activities in Socialization," Human Relations, 1977, 30, 11,977-990.

7. For an overview of Human Resource practices surrounding managing people whose jobs change as a result of mergers and acquisitions, see "Executive Actions for Managing Human Resources Before and After Acquisition," Schweiger, D.M., Ivancevich, J.M. and Power, F.R., The Academy of Management Executive, 1987, 127-138 and "Blending Corporate Families: Management and Organization Development in a Post-merger Environment," Fulmer, R.M., and Gilkey, R., The Academy of Management Executive, 1988, 2, 275-283.

8. See Reichers, A.E., "A Review and Reconceptualization of Organizational Commitment," Academy of Management Review, 1985, 10, 465-476.

9. See Lewicki, R.J., "Organizational Seduction: Building Commitment to Organizations," 1981, Organizational Dynamics, 1981 Autumn, 5-21.

10. See Hall, D.T. and Richter, J., "Balancing Work Life and Home Life: What Can Organizations Do to Help?," The Academy of Management Executive, 1988, Vol. 11, 3, 213-223 for a general discussion of the role organizations can play in the non-work lives of employees.

Biographical Sketch

Arnon E. Reichers is Associate Professor of Management and Human Resources at the Fisher College of Business, Ohio State University. Her research focuses on organizational commitment, newcomer socialization and culture/climate issues.

John P. Wanous is Professor of Management and Human Resources at the Fisher College of Business and joint Professor of Psychology at the Ohio State University. His research focuses on organizational entry.

Karen Steele is a doctoral candidate in the Dept. of Management and Human Resources, Fisher College of Business at the Ohio State University. Her interests focus on organizational design and change, and the management of public institutions.