Opportunities for Women in Logistics: An Analysis of Student Perspectives.

Today, there are plentiful career opportunities in logistics management, as illustrated by the comment that "... many professors receive more employment leads than they can fill each year." [1] In fact, a recent study by Ohio State University found that nearly 50 percent of the responding organizations

Furthermore, numerous sources indicate that logistics career opportunities for women are excellent. For example, Working Women [4] has suggested logistics as being one of the top twenty-five careers for women, and a recent article in Distribution magazine [5] highlighted the tremendous progress being made by female logisticians. Moreover, recent research by Cooper and La Londe indicated female logisticians are generally very positive about their logistics careers, satisfied with their current positions, and favorable towards their futures in logistics. [6]

The growing presence of women in logistics has caused many employers to explicitly address various gender management issues--sexual harassment, the tradeoff between work and family, the glass ceiling, among others--that traditionally had been ignored or glossed over. And, while there has been some discussion of gender management issues in the practitioner literature, there has been relatively little academic research dealing with these issues. These academic studies are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.

Perhaps the earliest empirical gender management research was conducted by Lynagh and Poist almost twenty-five years ago. Their research revealed that the vast majority of women were employed in hourly positions and that less than 5 percent were in some type of managerial position. [7] Moreover, very few women were a part of management training programs.

Andre's [8] study of men and women in logistics suggested that female logisticians tended to be younger than their male counterparts. She also found that top management positions were more likely to be held by men and that women were less optimistic about career advancement opportunities in logistics. On a more positive note, the majority of the female respondents were committed to remaining in the field.

In recent years, Lynagh, Murphy, and Poist have published a series of papers dealing with gender management issues in logistics. One paper indicated that women were more likely than men to perceive the existence of gender discrimination. [9] Similar to Andre, Lynagh and colleagues also found women in logistics were committed to remaining in the field. Interestingly, female logisticians suggested that education is the key for women who are seeking employment in the logistics field.

A second paper by Lynagh, Murphy, and Poist examined career-related perspectives regarding women in logistics. [10] Their results indicated that significant differences of opinion exist between male and female logistics professionals in terms of career opportunities and issues facing women in logistics. These differences were especially pronounced with respect to opportunities for advancement and perceived inequalities in career progress.

A third paper by Lynagh, Murphy, and Poist found the vast majority of female logistics professionals to be either satisfied or very satisfied with their present jobs. [11] The study results also indicated that the study respondents perceived career opportunities to be better at their present company than with companies in general. Furthermore, women who are currently in upper management positions in logistics appear to be more optimistic than other employees about career opportunities and issues.

THE PRESENT ANALYSIS

The work by Andre, together with that by Lynagh and colleagues, tends to indicate that female logisticians are committed to continuing in logistics and are generally satisfied with their jobs. However, the research also indicates potential obstacles to their career success, including, but not limited to, perceived gender discrimination, fewer opportunities for advancement, and inequalities in career progress. In addition, the research suggests relatively strong differences between the perceptions of male and female logisticians in terms of these obstacles to career success.

By reporting the perceptions of current logisticians, the previous studies have made valuable contributions to the literature on the topic of gender management in logistics. This study, by contrast, focuses on the perceptions of prospective logisticians--defined in this study as undergraduate logistics majors--with respect to a select number of gender-related issues in logistics. The input from collegiate logistics majors appears particularly relevant given literature suggestions that formal education is important for women seeking employment (and advancement) in the logistics field. [12]

This article will investigate the perceptions of current logistics students with respect to five gender management topics relevant to the field of logistics. More specifically, we will focus on the views of future logisticians in terms of perceived gender differences in the following areas: (1) employment opportunities; (2) job responsibilities; (3) starting salaries; (4) internship opportunities; and (5) opportunities compared to other business disciplines.

Major objectives will be to analyze aggregate student perceptions regarding these issues as well as to investigate whether student views are influenced by select demographic characteristics. [13] To this end, we focus on the following research questions:

(1) What are the aggregate perceptions of students regarding the five gender management issues?

The findings regarding student views should shed additional light as to the current status of certain gender management practices in logistics. In contrast, previous gender-related studies have focused strictly on the views of practicing logisticians.

(2) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their sex?

Respondent sex is a commonly used differentiator in research involving student samples. [14] The gender management research involving logistics practitioners suggests that there might be differences between male and female students with respect to gender management issues. [15]

(3) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their age?

Recent research involving student samples has suggested that (1) students should not be viewed homogeneously in terms of age and (2) important differences can exist between "traditional" and "non-traditional" aged undergraduate students. [16] Likewise, research by Gibson and colleagues has suggested that a student's awareness of the logistics discipline in general increases over time. [17]

There does not appear to be a generally accepted demarcation point for traditional and non-traditional students. For purposes of this study, traditional students will be those between eighteen and twenty-four years of age, while non-traditional will be defined as twenty-five and older, a demarcation consistent with Wooten's recent study among accounting students. [18] Based on the previous literature both within and outside the logistics discipline, we might expect differences between traditional and non-traditional students with respect to gender management issues.

(4) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their logistics experience?

Logistics experience is defined in this study as whether or not the respondent has had a logistics internship and/or a logistics job. This emphasis on previous work experience is based on work among student samples which suggested past work experience to be a strong influence on career choice. [19] As a result, exposure to "real world" logistics situations might influence respondent perceptions of gender management issues by providing them first-hand experiences with which to form their opinions.

(5) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their "personal relationships" within the field?

"Personal relationships" within the field is operationalized in this study as whether or not the respondent has family or friends employed in a logistics-related job. Previous research using student samples discovered "personal influence" (i.e., a proxy for relationships) to be a key variable in their perceptions about various careers. [20] Similar to the discussion concerning logistics experience, we might expect respondents who have family or friends employed in logistics to have a greater awareness of the opportunities and challenges of logistics management, including gender-related issues.

(6) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their awareness of professional transportation and logistics organizations?

Respondents in this study were classified according to their overall awareness level of professional transportation and logistics organizations (see Table 1 for relevant organizations); with "low" awareness being operationalized as awareness of two or fewer organizations and "high" awareness involving knowledge of three or more organizations. Our research involving student samples did not reveal any studies that looked at awareness of professional organizations. Nonetheless, it seems reasonable to postulate that respondents with a greater awareness of professional organizations might have more sensitivity to gender management issues given that some professional organizations are explicitly addressing gender management in logistics. As pointed out earlier, for example, Cooper and La Londe presented their research on career patterns of women in logistics at a recent annual meeting of the Council of Logistics Management. [21]

The remainder of the article will be organized as follows. The next section discusses the research methodology and offers a respondent profile. This will be followed by a section that presents the results and relevant discussion. The final section will offer a summary and potential implications for various logistics constituencies.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESPONDENT PROFILE

Research involving logistics student samples has rarely been published in scholarly logistics journals. By contrast, the use of student samples for scholarly research in other business disciplines is more common. Indeed, several business disciplines have journals that focus primarily on educational issues (e.g., Journal of Marketing Education, Journal of Accounting Education), where articles will occasionally report findings based on data from student samples. [22] Other business disciplines have recognized that research involving student samples can offer valuable insights for various constituencies, to include students, educators, educational institutions, practitioners, prospective employers, and professional organizations. We believe that scholarly research involving logistics students might provide similar insights for various logistics constituencies.

To this end, this article discusses results from a study of logistics students with respect to their perceptions of select gender management issues in logistics. The study was administered to various transportation and logistics classes at Iowa State University, the University of Maryland, and John Carroll University in a manner to prevent multiple responses from an individual student.

Each of these universities has a longstanding (over twenty-five years in existence) transportation and logistics program. Iowa State University, which is a public institution in Ames, Iowa, currently has approximately 150 logistics majors. The University of Maryland, a public institution located in College Park, Maryland, currently has approximately 190 logistics majors. And John Carroll University, a private institution in Cleveland, Ohio, currently has approximately forty logistics majors.

A total of 145 usable responses were collected from the three universities. Fifty-nine came from Iowa State University, fifty-five from the University of Maryland, and thirty-one from John Carroll University. Participation rates tend to reflect the relative number of logistics majors at the respective institutions.

Of the 145 respondents, slightly more than 60 percent were male, and approximately 70 percent were traditional aged (18-24) undergraduate students. Nearly 40 percent of the students were "pure" majors (i.e., only majoring in transportation/logistics), while over one-third reported double majors in transportation/logistics and marketing. Forty percent of the respondents reported having held a logistics internship and/or a logistics job, and nearly 40 percent indicated that they had family and/or friends employed in the logistics field. Finally, approximately one-half of the respondents reported awareness of at least three professional logistics organizations.

RESULTS

Respondents were asked to evaluate five gender management issues (presented in Table 2) using a five-point Likert scale anchored by strongly agree (1) and strongly disagree (5). The results to be discussed in this section are derived from two sources: (1) an aggregate analysis of student views regarding the gender management issues, and (2) cross-tabulation analyses between the gender management issues and the selected demographic characteristics.

Initial analysis of the data revealed a number of instances with minimal responses (fewer than five) in the "anchor" values (i.e., "strongly agree" and "strongly disagree"). Because this would result in multiple cell frequencies with expected frequencies of less than 5 (for the cross-tabulation analysis), the original five-point scales were collapsed into three categories (category l-"agreement" = strongly agree and agree; category 2-neutral; category 3-"disagreement" = strongly disagree and disagree). Information from the aggregate and cross-tabulation analyses are summarized in Tables 3 and4.

(1) What are the aggregate perceptions of students regarding the five gender management issues?

Results from the aggregate perceptions, appearing in Table 3, indicate a relatively low level (less than 25 percent) of agreement with four of the five gender management issues. For example, 21 percent of the respondents agreed that men majoring in logistics have greater employment opportunities than women majoring in logistics. Likewise, 17 percent indicated that men majoring in logistics have better opportunities than their female counterparts for logistics internships.

The overall results in Table 3 suggest gender equivalency rather than gender differences. In other words, the students as a whole are more likely to view opportunities for women as being equal to, rather than different from, men.

Moreover, Table 3 indicates that nearly one-third of the respondents agree about the comparative advantage of the logistics major for female students; over 40 percent were neutral and over 25 percent disagreed about logistical comparative advantage. This divergence of opinion is interesting given that (1) Working Women [25] has suggested logistics to be an attractive career for women, and (2) the three universities in this study actively promote logistics as offering superior opportunities for women.

(2) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their sex?

As shown in Table 4, four of the five gender issues show statistically significant differences (at the. 10 level or better) [24] between male and female respondents. These differences are especially pronounced in terms of perceptions concerning starting salaries, where 38 percent of the female respondents, versus 6 percent of the males, agree that female logistics majors receive lower starting salaries than do male logistics majors. Likewise, 22 percent of the female respondents agreed that women logistics majors are offered less challenging jobs than men; the comparable figure for males was 3 percent.

Overall, these results indicate that female logistics majors are more likely than their male counterparts to perceive inequalities with respect to gender-related issues. These findings are similar to those from research among logistics practitioners, which discovered significant differences between male and female logisticians in terms of gender management issues. [25] This similarity between the student and practitioner studies raises the intriguing possibility that logistics practitioners enter the profession with differing viewpoints on gender management issues and that the "real world" does little to ameliorate these differences. More definitive conclusions, however, will require additional research.

(3) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their age?

Table 4 shows that there were three statistically significant differences (employment opportunities, internships, comparative advantage) between traditional (18-24) and non-traditional (25+) aged students. Nearly 25 percent of traditional aged students, compared to 5 percent of the non-traditional ones, agree that male logistics majors have greater employment opportunities than their female counterparts. Likewise, 20 percent of the traditional aged students agree that male logistics majors have better internship opportunities than females; the comparable figure for non-traditional aged students was 5 percent. Finally, 30 percent of the traditional aged students disagreed that women logistics majors have superior opportunities to women majoring in other business disciplines, compared to 10 percent of the non-traditional aged students.

These findings appear to support the notion that important differences can exist between traditional and non-traditional aged students. [26] Interestingly, our results suggest a basic consistency in the sense that older students tend to be more optimistic about employment and internship opportunities for female logistics majors. Left unanswered, however, are the reasons for such optimism.

(4) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their logistics experience?

As shown in Table 4, respondents with previous logistics experience had a different perception than their non-experienced counterparts in terms of the job responsibilities assigned to men and women entering the logistics field. Indeed, nearly two-thirds of those with previous logistics experience disagreed that women are offered jobs with fewer responsibilities than those offered to men. By contrast, 45 percent of the nonexperienced respondents were neutral on this issue. These results may suggest that practical experience--either through a logistics internship or a logistics job--can be valuable in delineating the realities of job responsibilities, particularly with respect to female employees.

(5) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their "personal relationships" within the field?

The information in Table 4 indicates that in terms of gender management issues, no statistically significant differences were found between those respondents with, and those respondents without, family and/or friends employed in the logistics field. These findings may suggest that while a respondent's perceptions about logistics may be influenced by relationships with family and/or friends currently employed in the logistics industry, this influence appears to be minimal in terms of gender management issues.

(6) Do respondent perceptions on gender management issues differ according to their awareness of professional transportation and logistics organizations?

Table 4 shows that there were two statistically significant differences, involving job responsibilities and comparative advantage, between students with "low" awareness of professional logistics organizations and those with "high" awareness of these organizations. More specifically, 61 percent of the students with "high" awareness of professional logistics organizations disagreed that women logistics majors are offered jobs with fewer responsibilities than their male counterparts, compared to 43 percent of the students with "low" awareness. With respect to comparative advantage, 41 percent of the students with "high" awareness, versus 22 percent with "low" awareness, believe that women logistics majors have better opportunities than women majoring in other business disciplines.

These findings appear to suggest that professional logistics organizations can play a key role in disseminating information about career opportunities for female logisticians, particularly with respect to job responsibilities and the comparative advantage of the logistics major. This may highlight the need for professional logistics organizations to play a more significant role in the development of future logisticians, such as through the establishment of student chapters at universities offering the logistics major.

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

This article reports the findings from a survey of undergraduate logistics majors concerning their perceptions of career opportunities for women in logistics. An aggregate analysis of the responses suggested a general feeling that gender bias was not a serious issue facing women majoring in logistics, with a majority of respondents perceiving no gender differences regarding employment opportunities, job responsibilities, and internship opportunities. The aggregate analysis also found a divergence of opinion on the idea of women majoring in logistics having superior opportunities to women in other business disciplines.

The demographic analyses of the respondents revealed strong differences between male and female students in terms of their perspectives of career opportunities for women. There were also important differences between traditional and non-traditional aged students. In contrast, there were fewer differences for the demographic variables of experience, personal relationships, and awareness of logistics organizations.

The findings from this study have a number of implications for the many constituencies involved in the field of logistics. Prospective logistics majors, current logistics students, logistics faculty, logistics professional organizations, prospective employers, and logistics practitioners could all gain from the views of future logisticians. As will become evident in the following discussion, implications aimed at dealing with gender management issues for one constituency can create opportunities (as well as challenges) for other constituencies.

Prospective students might be able to make a more informed decision about pursuing a career in logistics by examining the views of current logistics majors. Insights into the gender management issues facing logistics majors can give much-needed information to students during their decision-making process. Results from the present study, for example, suggest that male and female logistics majors are likely to have different perceptions about gender management issues.

Similarly, current logistics students might use the study results as one input into the decision-making process for their logistics careers. For instance, students could investigate gender management issues at the companies they are considering working for upon graduation to determine whether they are "gender friendly" or not.

Logistics faculty also can use the results of this study in various ways, such as in teaching and student recruitment. In the area of teaching, logistics faculty need to realize that traditional and non-traditional aged students may have different perspectives concerning gender diversity issues in logistics. To this end, faculty could make use of guest speakers or course modules to discuss various gender management issues. Moreover, when recruiting prospective students, faculty should realize the importance of discussing possible gender-related issues facing logistics majors. This communication should provide prospective students with a realistic view of various issues surrounding the choice of logistics as a career path.

Professional logistics organizations should recognize their potential as change agents with respect to gender management issues; our results indicated that these organizations can be particularly influential with respect to delineating job responsibilities and establishing the comparative advantage of the logistics major. As the ranks of current and prospective female logisticians continue to swell, professional logistics organizations can assume a proactive role in developing seminars, short courses, and/or educational programs to address important gender management issues.

Lastly, the study results provide prospective employers and logistics practitioners with insights regarding gender diversity issues as perceived by men and women actively pursuing a future in the logistics profession. Right or wrong, the study results indicate that male and female students have different perceptions of gender management issues, an important finding given the adage "perception is reality."

In this regard, employers and practitioners must proactively seek to overcome any negative images regarding female participation in the logistics profession. For example, gender friendliness and awareness might be enhanced by sponsoring speaker topics dealing with diversity issues, earmarking some scholarships and interuships for women, and having career days featuring women role models in transportation and logistics. A key point is that the talents of both men and women must be recognized and fully utilized if the logistics discipline is to remain strong and continue to grow by attracting prospective logisticians of both sexes. Indeed, all constituencies involved in the field of logistics must be committed to the concept of diversity and ensuring a level playing field for all participants.

Mr. Knemeyer is assistant professor of marketing, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506; Mr. Murphy, EM-AST&L, is professor of business logistics, John Carroll University, University Heights, Ohio 44118; Mr. Poist, EM-AST&L, is professor of transportation and logistics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011-2063.

ENDNOTES

(1.) B.J. Gibson, S.M. Rutner, and D. Menachof, "Promoting Logistics Education: Encouraging a Major Decision," in Removing the Barriers: Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth Annual Transportation and Logistics Educators Conference, 1997, pp. 199-224.

(2.) B.J. LaLonde and J.M. Masters, "The 1997 Ohio State Survey of Career Patterns in Logistics," in Removing the Barriers: Annual Conference Proceedings, Oak Brook, IL: Council of Logistics Management, 1997, pp. 47-68.

(3.) P. Zinszer, A Study of University Programs in Logistics and Industry Demand For Entry Level Logistics Employees, Oak Brook, IL: Council of Logistics Management, 1985.

(4.) M. Jones and M. Andrews, "25 Hottest Careers for Women," Working Women, July-August 1996, pp. 37-48.

(5.) J. Melbin, "No Longer in the Shadows," Distribution, March 1997, pp. 34-39.

(6.) M. Cooper and B. LaLonde, "1997 Career Patterns of Women in Logistics," in Removing the Barriers: Annual Conference Proceedings, Oak Brook, IL: Council of Logistics Management 1997, pp. 93-112.

(7.) P. Lynagh and R. Poist, "Women and Minority Group Involvement: Frontier for Social Activism in PDM," Transportation Journal, Summer 1975, pp. 31-39.

(8.) R. Andre, "A Comparison of Career Status and Attitudes Among Men and Women in Logistics," The Logistics and Transportation Review, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1995, pp. 179-189.

(9.) P. Lynagh, P. Murphy, and R. Poist, "Women in Transportation and Logistics: Contemporary Perspectives," Defense Transportation Journal, August 1996, pp. 10-15.

(10.) P. Lynagh, P. Murphy, and R. Poist, "Career-Related Perspectives Regarding Women in Logistics: A Comparative Analysis," Transportation Journal, Fall 1996, pp. 35-42.

(11.) P. Lynagh, P. Murphy, and R. Poist, "Women's Views Regarding Employment in Transportation and Logistics: A Status Report," Journal of Transportation, Low, Logistics and Policy, Spring 1998, pp. 166-181.

(12.) See Notes 7 and 9.

(13.) This study focuses on the demographic characteristics of sex, age, logistics experience, "personal relationships" within the field, and awareness of professional transportation and logistics organizations. It should be noted that other possible demographic characteristics, such as exposure to female logistics instructors, were not examined in the current study.

(14.) See, for example, J. Bebbington, I. Thomson, and D. Wall, "Accounting Students and Constructed Gender: An Exploration of Gender in the Context of Accounting Choices at Two Scottish Universities," Journal of Accounting Education, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1997, pp. 241-267.

(15.) For example, see Notes 8 and 9.

(16.) T. Wooten, "Factors Influencing Student Learning in Introductory Accounting Classes: A Comparison of Traditional and Non-Traditional Students," issues in Accounting Education, May 1998, pp. 357-373.

(17.) Same reference as Note 1.

(18.) Same reference as Note 15.

(19.) C. Anderson, S. Stanley, T. Parker, "Student Perceptions of Marketing Careers and Career Decision Influences: A Retailing Example," Journal of Marketing Education, Spring 1992, pp. 46-56.

(20.) Same reference as Note 17.

(21.) Same reference as Note 6.

(22.) For example, see S. Newell, P. Titus, and J. West, "Investigating the Undergraduate Student Decision-Marking Process of Selecting a Business Specialization: A Comparison of Marketing and Nonmarketing Business Students," Journal of Marketing Education, Fall 1996, pp. 57-67; also, O. Graves, I. Nelson, and J. Davis, "Accounting Student Characteristics: A Survey of Accounting Majors at Federation of Schools of Accountancy Schools," Journal of Accounting Education, 1992, Vol. 10, pp. 25-37.

(23.) Same reference as Note 4.

(24.) For examples of studies using similar significance levels, see M. Crum, D. Johnson, and B. Allen, "A Longitudinal Assessment of EDI Use in the U.S. Motor Carrier Industry," Transportation Journal, Fall 1998, pp. 15-28; R. Angeles, R. Nath, and D. Hendon, "An Empirical Investigation of the Level of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) Implementation and its Ability to Predict EDI System Success Measures and EDI Implementation Factors," international Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 28, No. 9/10, 1998, pp. 773-793; C. Droge and R. Germain, "The Just-In-Time Inventory Effect: Does It Hold Under Different Contextual, Environmental, and Organizational Conditions?," Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1998, pp. 53-71; L. Williams and K. Rao, "Information Technology Adoption: Using Classical Adoption Models to Predict ASI Software Implementation," Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1998, pp. 5-16; T. Stank and M. Crum, "Just-in-Time Management and Transportatio n Service Performance in a Cross-Border Setting," Transportation Journal, Spring 1997, pp. 31-42; also, R. Windle and M. Dresner, "The Short and Long Run Effects of Entry on U.S. Domestic Air Routes," Transportation Journal, Winter 1995, pp. 14-25.

(25.) Same reference as Note 10.

(26.) Same reference as Note 15.

Professional Organizations

Included in Survey

American Society of Transportation & Logistics, Inc. (AST&L)

Council of Logistics Management (CLM)

Delta Nu Alpha (DNA)

National Defense Transportation Association (NDTA)

Propeller Club

International Society of Logistics (ISL)

Warehousing Education Research Council (WERC)

Women's Transportation Seminar (WTS)

                     Gender Management Issues Examined
Issue 1: Men majoring in logistics at (respondent's
         university) have greater employment
         opportunities than women majoring in
         logistics. (Hereafter referred to as
         employment opportunities.)
Issue 2: Women majoring in logistics at (respondent's
         university) are offered jobs with fewer
         responsibilities than those offered to men
         majoring in logistics. (Hereafter referred to
         as job responsibilities.)
Issue 3: Women majoring in logistics at (respondent's
         university) receive lower starting salary
         offers than men majoring in logistics.
         (Hereafter referred to as starting salary.)
Issue 4: Men majoring in logistics at (respondent's
         university) have better opportunities for
         logistics internships than women majoring
         in logistics. (Hereafter referred to as
         internship opportunities.)
Issue 5: The opportunities for women majoring in logistics
         at (respondent's university) are superior to
         women majoring in other business fields.
         (Hereafter referred to as comparative
         advantage.)
                  Summary Analysis of Student Perspectives
                    Percentage of respondent indicating:
                         Strongly Agree or         Strongly Disagree or
Issue                          Agree       Neutral       Disagree
Employment opportunities       21.4%        27.6%         51.0%
Job responsibilities           10.3%        37.9%         51.7%
Starting salary                18.6%        32.4%         49.0%
Internship opportunities       16.6%        29.7%         53.8%
Comparative advantage          31.0%        42.1%         26.9%
             Cross-Tabulation Analysis of Demographic Variables
                       Pearson's Chi-square Results:
                         Respondent Respondent Logistics     Personal
Issue                       Sex        Age     Experience  Relationships
Employment opportunities 11.921 [a] 5.256 [c]    3.572         1.073
Job responsibilities     14.518 [a] 2.837        7.394 [b]     0.246
Starting salary          22.407 [a] 1.394        1.098         0.012
Internship opportunities 13.262 [a] 4.908 [c]    1.081         1.074
Comparative advantage     3.455     4.936 [c]    3.597         1.471
                         Knowledge of
Issue                    Organizations
Employment opportunities     0.799
Job responsibilities         4.693 [c]
Starting salary              1.408
Internship opportunities     0.866
Comparative advantage        6.321 [b]
(a.)statistically significant at .01 level
(b.)statistically significant at .05 level
(c.)statistically significant at .10 level