Career development in middle childhood: a qualitative inquiry.

The purpose of this investigation was to explore childhood career development by examining 4th- and 5th-grade students' career and self-awareness, exploration, and career planning. Responses to written assignments provided qualitative data for analysis. Written narrative data were analyzed using

consensual qualitative research methods as described by C. E. Hill, B. J. Thompson, and E. N. Williams (1997). Consistent with theory (D. Super, 1990), children's reflections on prominent career tasks and influences revealed 8 of the 9 (all but curiosity) dimensions of childhood career development as outlined by Super. In addition, participants described their conceptions of work, a domain not explicitly articulated by Super and worthy of further inquiry.

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Despite increased attention to prevention (Heppner, 2000) and a growing involvement in school-to-work initiatives (e.g., Fouad, 1997; Worthington & Juntunen, 1997), research and developmentally based prevention efforts aimed at elementary youth are seriously lacking (Lenhardt & Young, 2001; Whiston & Sexton, 1998). Research suggests that students who drop out of school at age 16 have psychologically disengaged from school as early as Grade 3 (McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 1998). Moreover, sixth-through-ninth-grade children have demonstrated very little understanding of how school relates to the real world and seem to have little to no awareness of the skills and knowledge needed for success in the future (Johnson, 2000).

Career guidance provides a fundamental means of promoting equal opportunity and educational equity (Jalongo, 1989). Research explicitly focused on contributing to the conceptual knowledge of childhood career development is urgently needed to inform early career interventions and help children develop a meaningful understanding of the relevance of school-based learning to their future career (Gysbers, 1997; Johnson, 2000). It is critical to add to the knowledge of the career process of all students, particularly those most at risk (i.e., lower socioeconomic, under-privileged groups). Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to contribute to the theoretical knowledge of childhood career development by using a grounded theory approach to explore childhood career development as it naturally unfolds in young children from an underserved urban population.

Career theorists have placed limited emphasis on childhood career development, although it is generally acknowledged that it is during childhood that crucial career-related concepts and attitudes are first formed (e.g., Super, 1990). Super has offered the most comprehensive treatment of childhood career development. In the next section, we review the major tenets of Super's theory.

The growth stage (birth-14 years) was described as a time when the self-concept develops through identification with key figures in the family and school. Super (1990) developed a theoretical model of childhood career development, consisting of nine concepts thought to contribute to career awareness and decision making. These concepts include the following.

* Curiosity: a need leading to inquisitive behavior

* Exploration: activities, such as searching or examining, that elicit information about oneself or one's environment in an attempt to meet curiosity needs

* Information: an awareness of the importance or use of occupational information and how one acquires this information

* Key figures: role models or interesting or helpful people who have played a meaningful role in individuals' lives

* Interests: an awareness of one's likes and dislikes

* Locus of control: the degree to which one feels in control over one's present and future

* Time perspective: an awareness of how the past, present, and future can be used to plan future events

* Self-concept: dimensions of the self in some role, situation, or position performing some set of functions or in some web of relationships

* Planfulness: an awareness of the importance of planning

The extant empirical literature on childhood career development is sparse. In spite of Super's (1990) conceptualization of childhood career development, there has yet to be an adequate empirical examination of the theoretical concepts set forth. Several investigations have addressed children's interests (Tracey, 2002), occupational preferences (Gottfredson, 1981), aspirations and expectations (Helwig, 1998, 2001; Sellers, Satcher, & Comas, 1999), sex role stereotyping, and parental influences on career choice (McMahon & Patton, 1997; Trice, Hughes, Odom, Woods, & McClellan, 1995). Other childhood career development research has revealed developmental and gender differences. For example, Tracey provided evidence that career interests change over time, becoming more stable from elementary to middle school. Helwig (2001) found that the social value of children's occupational aspirations increased in childhood until the beginning of the teen years. In a study of second- through eighth-grade boys, Cook et al. (1996) provided evidence that older boys tend to be more realistic about occupational aspirations and expectations than younger boys. Gender differences have also been found. Vondracek and Kirchner (1974) found that girls ages 3 to 6 years undergo occupational foreclosure at a younger age than do boys. Helwig (2001) reported that boys consistently had more fantasy jobs in their occupational aspirations than girls did. In a study that investigated the structure of fourth- through eighth-grade children's interests, Tracey and Ward (1998) found that girls were more likely than boys to report Artistic, Social, and Conventional interests, whereas boys were more likely than girls to report Realistic and Investigative interests.

Although these investigations add to the knowledge of childhood career development, little systematic research has been conducted to confirm theoretical assumptions evident in childhood models of life span career development (e.g., Super, 1990). This is particularly problematic given assumptions that the establishment of interests, motivation, and other career behaviors occurs in childhood (Gottfredson, 1981; Tracey, 2002). An empirically supported theoretical understanding of childhood career development is needed to facilitate lifelong learning and the development of coherent programs suited to the changing needs of children over time. Moreover, much of the existing research has been conducted with middle-class suburban youth, limiting the knowledge of more diverse groups in terms of socioeconomic status (SES) and racial/ethnic background. Economically challenged schools continue to face obstacles in effectively preparing youth for a successful transition to work and career because economic and oppressive forces exert a powerful influence on students' academic success and career expectations (Schultheiss, in press-a, in press-b; Weinger, 2000). Early career interventions provide the ideal venue for the promotion of social action initiatives aimed at improving academic achievement and expanding future career options for all students. Thus, an empirically informed theoretical understanding of the childhood career development process is essential to improve theoretical models and early career interventions.

The purpose of this discovery-oriented investigation was to use a data-driven approach to explore the career development process with a relatively understudied population in terms of age, SES, and racial/ethnic background. The objective was to qualitatively assess participants' knowledge of self and occupational information, the role of significant others, education and work goals, and the decision-making process. How do children conceive of themselves (i.e., abilities, interests) and possible future jobs? How do children perceive others to be influential in their career development process? What goals do children hold? How do young students make important decisions? Are there differences apparent across gender and age? This study builds on the theoretical and empirical literature on life span career development by examining an important, yet overlooked, aspect of life span theory: the middle childhood years. Using written responses to open-ended questions, an in-depth analysis of the career development process in childhood is provided.

Method

Participants

Forty-nine (19 boys, 30 girls) urban elementary school students in the Midwest participated in this study. Ages ranged from 9 to 12 years (M = 10.35, SD = 0.79), and students were in fourth (34 students) and fifth grade (15 students). Participants were 59% European American, 24% African American, 13% Hispanic American, and 4% other (e.g., Arab American, Native American, or Asian American). Eighty-nine percent qualified for free lunch. According to state proficiency test standards, these students met academic proficiency in all academic areas (i.e., mathematics, writing, science, and citizenship) except reading.

Measures

The purpose of the writing assignments was to explore the career development process in childhood by examining children's responses to open-ended questions about themselves, influential others, goals, and decision making. Responses to open-ended questions (one assignment per week) provided qualitative data for analysis. Questions were constructed on the basis of career development literature emphasizing the role of career and self-awareness, exploration, significant others, planning, goal setting, and decision making in childhood (e.g., Super, 1990; Trice et al., 1995). The questions were as follows: (a) Write about how your family has influenced you in choosing your favorite jobs; (b) Write about how your teachers have influenced you in choosing your favorite jobs; (c) Write about all the things that you are good at. Write about how you got to be good at these things; (d) Describe how you make important decisions; (e) Write about the school and work goals you have for yourself when you grow up. What job do you think that you will have when you grow up? What will you need to do to get a job like this?

Procedure

We followed the procedures for consensual qualitative research (see Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997, for a detailed description of this method), as described next, to address the research questions posed in this investigation.

Recruiting participants. Following Hill et al.'s (1997) suggestions on defining the population of interest and selecting a sample, we were most interested in exploring the career development process of low-SES, urban, elementary youth. This population was of interest given the paucity of research on the career development of lower SES young urban students who are often at risk and most in need of preventative early career interventions (McWhirter et al., 1998). Given that the time required to establish a relationship and conduct in-depth interviews would excessively detract from academic instructional time with an already academically at-risk group of children, the decision was made to integrate data collection into the curriculum by means of language arts writing assignments that were distributed by the classroom teachers. This process also has the potential to encourage a more self-reflective process analogous to providing the questions to interviewees prior to the interview (Hill et al., 1997). Moreover, our interest in a broad theoretical understanding of childhood career development contributed to our decision to ask fewer open-ended questions with a larger sample (Hill et al., 1997; Tinsley, 1997).

Data analysis. Preliminary analyses were conducted on 42 of the 49 cases (a case equalled the collected writing assignments of one student). The remaining randomly selected 7 cases (consistent with the percentage of cases recommended by Hill et al., 1997) were examined later to assess the stability of the findings (i.e., to determine if the results generally explain the phenomenon for a defined group; Hill et al., 1997). On the basis of the assigned questions and a review of the literature, the primary team of two researchers (the first and third authors of this article) developed an initial list of domains (i.e., topic areas used to group information or data about similar topics; Hill et al., 1997). This initial list consisted of five domains (i.e., Exploration, Interests and Abilities, Key Figures, Time Perspective and Planning, and Decision Making). The team then independently coded the data (i.e., responses to all questions from each participant) from 10 of the initial 42 cases into domains and met to argue to consensus (a process wherein disagreements in coding are discussed until agreement is reached regarding the coding of the data; Hill et al., 1997). This resulted in changes in the wording of two domains and the construction of two additional domains. Specifically, Exploration was renamed Exploration and Information to reflect the acquisition of information and an awareness of the importance of occupational information. Interests and Abilities was renamed Self-Concept to reflect the broader self-descriptive theme evident in children's responses. The two new domains (i.e., Locus of Control and Conceptions of Work) reflected content in participants' responses that was consistent with Super's (1990) theory (i.e., locus of control) and representative of children's conceptions or understanding of the nature of work (i.e., conceptions of work). This process resulted in seven domains (i.e., Exploration and Information, Self-Concept, Key Figures, Locus of Control, Time Perspective and Planning, Decision Making, and Conceptions of Work). The team then independently coded the remaining 32 cases into domains and met to argue to consensus. No additional domains emerged in this process. The third researcher (the second author of this article), who served as the auditor, then reviewed the work of the primary team and offered feedback regarding coding of the data. The primary team discussed the comments of the auditor and made several minor changes.

Next, a cross analysis of the data (across cases) was conducted that resulted in coding the data within each domain into categories that represented the content of each domain. Thus, categories represent the similarities between cases culled from the data within each domain. This process began with each primary team member independently coding data into categories for three or four domains. The primary team then met to argue to consensus. This resulted in minor revisions in the labels assigned to several categories. After consensus was reached on the coding of the categories, the auditor then reviewed this portion of the data analysis. Suggestions were made to combine related categories to reflect broader themes and to reword others for greater clarity. The primary team then met to review the auditor's suggestions, and make minor changes to the categories.

To determine the stability of the domains and categories, we next coded the remaining seven cases. No new domains or categories emerged, suggesting the results were stable. Consistent with Hill et al. (1997), we incorporated these additional cases into the cross analysis, resulting in a total sample of 49 participants. On the basis of research pointing to the importance of studying gender and developmental differences in childhood career development (Tracey & Ward, 1998), between-group differences for gender and grade were explored by comparing the percentages of cases described as general, typical, and variant across these groups.

Results

Table 1 illustrates the number of cases assigned to each category within each of the seven domains. Consistent with Hill et al.'s (1997) recommendations regarding categorizing the representativeness of the results to the sample, we described a category as general if it applied to all 49 cases, typical if it applied to 24 to 48 cases (i.e., at least 50% of the cases), and variant (occasional, a few) if it applied to 3 to 23 cases. Categories applying to 1 to 2 cases were not included. In the following sections, brief excerpts from participants' responses are offered to exemplify the categories.

Exploration and Information

This domain represents participants' descriptions of gaining information through occupational exploration, connecting school learning to work, and exploration through play. These three topics represent the three variant categories identified in this domain.

Occupational exploration. This category includes participants' descriptions of guided exploration in which teachers and parents exposed them to new experiences or novel environments, encouraged them to try new things, or facilitated the acquisition of information. It also includes descriptions of self-initiated exploration and activities that students identified as enjoyable or challenging. In the following passage, the participant discussed how teachers exposed the children to experiences and information:

    They take me places where I would know about it. They took me to a
    museum to see what an archeologist dug up. (Participant 7)

In another instance, a student connected observing the librarian with her job choice:

    I observed the librarian and she told me what kind of things she
    does. That's when I decided to be a librarian. (Participant 29)

Connecting school learning to work. This category includes participants' descriptions of gaining occupational information by connecting school learning to the requirements of work:

    The things I need to know and work hard at in school to become a
    singer are writing and reading. I need to know reading, because I'll
    be singing and reading off the paper. I also need to know how to
    write, because I want to write songs, too. (Participant 9)

Exploration through play. This category includes participants' descriptions of exploratory play, including exploration of various occupational roles through imaginary or fantasy play:

    Me, my friend, sisters, and cousins play school all the time, and I
    am a good teacher. (Participant 50)

Self-Concept

In this domain, participants identified specific interests, abilities, and activities they found enjoyable. They also made connections between interests and future jobs and emphasized the importance of practice and assistance and support from others in the development of their abilities. Three categories emerged within this domain: awareness of abilities (typical), awareness of interests (variant), and translation of self-concept (variant).

Awareness of abilities. Awareness of abilities pertains to descriptions of one's academic and nonacademic abilities and an awareness of how one develops certain abilities and skills through repetition and practice.

    I am good writing stories. I am also very good at drawing ... I
    always practice, practice, practice. I always write little stories
    at home. (Participant 36)

Awareness of interests. Awareness of interests includes both academic and nonacademic interests.

    I love to ride horses, and I love to take care of horses. Right now,
    I am in drama class and I am the best in my class. I love to sing
    and I have a great voice. (Participant 50)

Translation of self-concept. Translation of self-concept refers to students' responses that demonstrated an understanding of the connection between abilities or interests and potential occupations:

    I am good at science. That is why I want to be an archeologist.
    (Participant 7)

Key Figures

Participants discussed the influential roles of important others (i.e., teachers and family members) in their career development. This domain is organized around eight categories that depict the various perceived roles of important people. Teaching and providing social support were typical categories. The remaining categories occurred occasionally (variant).

Teaching. Participants described the teaching role that key figures played in their education and career development. For example, students demonstrated how teaching prepared them for a future job, helped them gain knowledge and occupational information, and nurtured interests.

    When we are in social studies we learn about the judicial branch.
    The judicial branch has to do with judges and lawyers. When we learn
    more about the judicial branch, I get more knowledge and [more]
    interested. (Participant 73)

Providing social support. This category includes descriptions of multidimensional aspects of social support (i.e., emotional, social integration, esteem, tangible, and information support; Cutrona, 1996). The following portrays encouragement and communicating confidence in abilities:

    My family influenced me by telling me never to give up on something
    I want to do ... they say be whatever you want to be ... My family
    also influenced me by believing in me. (Participant 8)

Identifying strengths and/or occupations. This category includes participants' descriptions of how important people have been influential by identifying strengths, abilities, and potential future occupations.

    My mom has influenced me on playing baseball because she thinks I
    can hit so good. She also thinks I can run fast ... pitch really
    good ... and am good at catching the ball. My sister has influenced
    me on being a teacher, because I can teach good. (Participant 1)

Serving as a role model. Occasionally students wrote about the influential nature of role models or important people they looked up to. This student wrote about how a teacher served as a role model:

    [Our teacher] tells you that you are a great student. We can look up
    to him. He gives you good clues on the way to act. I think he is a
    great role model. (Participant 77)

Providing experiences. Providing experiences pertains to how family or teachers provided experiences that have influenced an individual's occupational interests. The next example demonstrates how the home environment was influential:

    When I grow up I want to be a veterinarian. One reason is that my
    family always had animals. When I was little I used to have dogs,
    cats, goldfish, and more. (Participant 52)

Influencing conceptions of work. This category includes descriptions of how important people have influenced the participant's understanding of the function or meaning of work:

    [My family] told me to get a job [that is] worthwhile. They told me
    that I should get a job that will give me a good paycheck. They said
    a job is only good if it lasts a while.... My grandmother told me a
    job is a job no matter what it is. She taught me a lot. (Participant
    10)

Emphasizing education. This category refers to key figures communicating the importance of education. The following excerpt provides an example of this:

    My grandpa always makes sure I get up in the morning, so I can get
    up and get an education. My grandpa also says if you don't go to
    school you're taking the easy way out ... until you have no job
    because you didn't finish school, therefore you have no money ...
    then its hard. So, take the hard way ... because then later it will
    be easy. (Participant 9)

Instilling values. This category includes participants' responses that describe how important others instilled work and family values in the participant. The following depicts this category:

    [My mother] says you have to work to make a living. She says life is
    very tricky. You have to be home with your children. She says if you
    get a good job you can work, but with more money. I think people
    should not have children until they are very prepared and ready.
    (Participant 65)

Locus of Control

This domain includes descriptions of internal and external control, forming two variant categories. Descriptions of internal control pertain to experiencing control over one's present and occupational future. External control refers to a perception that control is external to oneself. Discussions of environmental conditions, such as poverty and violence that may contribute to an external sense of control, were also included.

Internal locus of control. This category includes students' responses that reflect a sense of internal control over one's behavior and future. In the next example, this student emphasizes the importance of effort:

    I think my job is hard to get because I have to stay in school a
    lot, but I am going to put all my effort into it. Because, what I
    learn has everything to do with being a lawyer and doctor.
    (Participant 58)

External locus of control. This category pertains to perceptions that control is external to oneself. The following provides an example of how environmental conditions may contribute to an external locus of control and, in turn, perceived barriers to one's choice:

    I really enjoyed looking at [my mother's] job that she has. I told
    her that when I grow up, if it has not been knocked down, I will
    pick that job. (Participant 28)

Time Perspective and Planning

This domain pertains to reflections on educational and occupational goals and marriage and family aspirations. Three categories in this domain are goals linking education and future work (typical), identification of desired future job (variant), and family goals (variant).

Goals linking education and future work. In this category are responses that identify the connection between obtaining an education and future work.

    There are many important decisions I will have to make in my future.
    One of my decisions will be to go to college to get a good job.
    (Participant 37)

Identification of desired future job. This category includes student responses that identify a potential future job.

    What I want, and in the future am going to be, is a writer. I always
    wanted to be a baseball player, but I found out that writing is the
    job for me. (Participant 20)

Family goals. This category includes future family goals.

    I want to have three children. I would like to have a husband that
    could stay home when I am at work, and me and him can have hours
    together, too. (Participant 65)

Decision Making

This domain consists of descriptions of decision making, including considering health and safety, following a rational process, consulting others, using one's conscience/feelings/intuition as a guide, considering the impression one makes on others, and following the rules. These topics are represented in the following six variant categories.

Considers health and safety. This category includes discussions of the importance of considering the health and safety of oneself and others in the decision-making process.

    I have to pick a decision that keeps me safe and healthy, and make
    sure other people are safe, too. (Participant 44)

Follows rational process. The following excerpt is an example of a student's rational decision-making process.

    These are the steps I follow when I am making a decision. The first
    step is to decide the options or choices. Next, is to pick the
    decision.... After that, I do the action that I picked. The last
    step is that I deal with the consequences. (Participant 37)

Consults others. Occasionally, students described consulting others for their advice and opinions, as in the following example.

    My mom helps me make my decisions sometimes. (Participant 61)

Uses conscience/feelings/intuition as a guide. This category includes those responses that indicated that one's decision was based on one's conscience, feelings, or intuition.

    You should always make a decision that you feel is right, not what
    your friends think. (Participant 30)

Considers the impression one makes on others. This category pertains to considering the impression one might make on others.

    I do what I think would make a good impression on other people.
    (Participant 7)

Follows rules. Some participants described making decisions by following the rules set by others.

    [Make important decisions] by following rules, listening to your
    parents. Never break the law. (Participant 20)

Conceptions of Work

This domain includes participants' descriptions of the meaning and purpose of work. These descriptions seemed to depict the socioeconomic realities of the participants. Responses included descriptions of the importance of earning money to meet basic needs (e.g., food, housing), the importance and role of work (e.g., obtaining and keeping a paying job), and helping others through work. This domain consists of two variant categories described next.

Importance of earning money and providing a home. This category refers to recognizing the importance of earnings and providing a home for one's family.

    I will have to get a job. I will have to keep money to pay the
    bills. Mainly, [take care of] my family. (Participant 71)

Helping others. This category includes descriptions of the importance of helping others through work.

    I will need to work hard ... and to help others the way you need to
    be treated.... What job I think [I will have] when I grow up is a
    doctor ... then you will need to do things to help others
    (Participant 12)

Charting Between-Group Differences

The results were subdivided into two sets of groups by gender and grade to determine if the career development process is different for these sub-groups. Although between-group differences must be interpreted with caution, several differences emerged in the classification of responses as general (i.e., applies to all 49 cases), typical (i.e., applies to 24 to 48 cases), and variant (i.e., applies to 3 to 23 cases). For gender, in the Self-Concept domain, girls typically reported an awareness of interests compared with boys, who only occasionally did so. In the Key Figures domain, girls also typically acknowledged the role of significant others in providing social support, compared with boys who did so occasionally. In the Decision Making domain, boys more typically reported considering health and safety, whereas girls did so less frequently (variant).

Differences also emerged for grade. There were several categories that fifth-grade children reported more frequently than did fourth-grade children. In the Self-Concept domain, fifth graders reported an awareness of interests more frequently (typical) than did fourth graders (variant). Fifth graders also typically acknowledged family members and teachers as providing social support and serving as role models more frequently than did fourth graders (variant; Key Figures domain). In the Decision Making domain, fifth graders typically reported consulting others, whereas fourth graders did so occasionally. Fourth graders reported an internal locus of control and considered health and safety issues more often (typical) than did fifth-grade children (variant).

Discussion

The results of this investigation broaden the understanding of how children learn about and prepare for work. Consistent with the burgeoning literature on conceptions of work or notions or beliefs about work (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi & Schneider, 2000), the findings suggest that some children have already begun to hold ideas about the importance of earning money, providing a home for one's family, and helping others through their work. The results also indicate that important or key figures in the child's life have a significant influence on the development of these conceptions of work. Specifically, participants in this investigation described how their families helped to shape their understanding of the function or meaning of work by communicating the importance of hard work and earning an income.

In this investigation, we examined the relatively unexplored terrain of childhood career development. The results of this investigation largely support Super's (1990) theory and add to the conceptual knowledge of the multidimensional nature of childhood career development. Specifically, our findings support Super's dimensional model, but they suggest that there may be fewer, more parsimonious dimensions than originally hypothesized. Consistent with theory (Super, 1990), children's reflections on prominent career tasks and influences revealed 8 of the 9 (all but curiosity) dimensions of the growth stage. The dimensions revealed in the analysis, however, were not discrete dimensions in all instances (i.e., some were combined), thus the total number and names of the domains do not match the nine dimensions exactly. Specifically, exploration and information were combined in children's responses and appeared to be overlapping constructs. This is consistent with the theory (Super, 1990) that suggests that exploratory behavior leads to the acquisition of occupational information and further exploration. Similarly, time perspective and planning coalesced into one topic, consistent with theory indicating that time perspective represents an awareness of how time can be used to plan future events. In addition, participants' responses connecting education and future work suggest an understanding of how planning is related to present and future time perspectives. A third domain, Self-Concept, also integrated two of Super's dimensions: interests and self-concept. Participants' self-conceptions appeared to be centered on an awareness of their abilities and interests and the connection between abilities and interests and future jobs (i.e., translation of self-concept).

The one dimension in Super's model that was not revealed in the data was curiosity. Given that curiosity represents an intrapersonal need, it may be more difficult to assess indirectly. Future research is needed to clarify the role, if any, that curiosity plays in the early career development process. One domain that emerged that was not originally identified in Super's model was Conceptions of Work. The children in this sample clearly articulated their ideas about the meaning and purpose of work. It is possible that these ideas and how they are formed are important to childhood career development; however, the implications of these conceptions are a topic for future study. Decision Making, although not one of Super's nine dimensions, is central to his developmental model in that the nine dimensions are thought to contribute to decision making.

The findings of this investigation are consistent with previous research attesting to children engaging in exploration, developing interests, forming aspirations (Tracey, 2002), and engaging in planning (McMahon & Patton, 1997; Trice & McClellan, 1993-94). Moreover, the results affirm efforts to translate interests and abilities into potential future occupations (Super, 1990; Tracey, 2002). Together with research indicating that childhood aspirations significantly influence adult career choice (Trice & McClellan, 1993-94), the results underscore the importance of early career interventions that promote the exploration of alternatives and counter the circumscription process involved in the elimination of viable alternatives (cf. Gottfredson, 1981).

Our findings revealed that childhood exploration encompasses both self-initiated exploration and exploration that is introduced and guided by important others, such as teachers and family members. Consistent with the literature on self-determination (Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997) and the development of internal motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1987), one might hypothesize that if guided exploration supports autonomy in the student, it might lead to more independent, self-initiated exploratory behaviors; a sense of internal locus of control and motivation; and stronger self-efficacy. Given the importance of self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Vallerand et al., 1997) and self-efficacy, these are topics worthy of further inquiry.

Another finding consistent with Super's (1990) theory was the emergence of self-concept in childhood. Occupational exploration, identification with key figures and exploration through play (cf. role modeling key figures) are consistent with the formation element of the self-concept theory of vocational development. Hence, childhood interventions that facilitate exploration and self-concept development might enhance early developmental progress.

The Key Figures domain presented information that was both consistent with previous research (McMahon & Patton, 1997) and extended the knowledge of the role of important others. The data indicated that family members and teachers play varied roles, including educational (i.e., teaching, identifying strengths and occupations), supportive, and ideological (e.g., influencing values and conceptions of work).

Results in the Decision Making domain were suggestive of both autonomous and relational (i.e., consults others, considers impression on others) approaches to decision making (cf. Phillips, Christopher-Sisk, & Gravino, 2001). The focus on health and safety issues was an interesting aspect of participants' responses, possibly reflective of the inner-city environment of participants. Future research might explore the role of health and safety issues in decisions affecting multiple life domains (e.g., work, family, home).

Implications for Practice

The results of this theory-building investigation suggest several implications for practice. Developmentally based career education programs that foster an exploratory attitude in children and promote the exploration of new domains and ideas can broaden children's informational knowledge and exposure to diverse occupations. Exploration of abilities and interests can be encouraged through educational activities that expose children to new experiences and information. Teachers can provide learning experiences that provide opportunities for children to acquire new skills and tap unique talents that might have otherwise been overlooked. To strengthen the connection between school and future occupations, teachers and school counselors could provide children with experiences that more clearly link academic subject areas with various occupations. Specific guidance lessons also might focus on building the skills needed for planning, goal setting, and decision making. The content of these guidance lessons need not be occupational. Instead, these skills can be taught using high-interest topics that relate to real-life situations, such as planning a party or deciding which bicycle to buy. Children's conceptions of work, and how they are formed, also could be explored in discussions with children. A better understanding of the multiple meanings that children associate with work and career aspirations and expectations can provide counselors with important information to guide counseling interventions. For example, career myths or unrealistic expectations can be countered, and the breadth of career options can be expanded. Other career guidance programs could focus on the development of an internal locus of control, so that children become more self-directed and experience a greater sense of control over their future. This process could lead to an increase in intrinsic motivation and clearer career plans and goals. Finally, children's relational support networks can be assessed and nurtured so that important adults are more likely to contribute in positive ways to children's career development. Career practitioners can serve as psychoeducational consultants for parents and provide direct intervention programs for them to help facilitate this process.

Directions for Future Research

The findings of this investigation point to several important directions for future research. Two domains not explicitly described by Super (1990), Conceptions of Work and Decision Making, merit further inquiry. Influences on the development of children's conceptions of work (e.g., socioeconomic, cultural, self-concept) and the stability of these conceptions over time would be important to explore. For example, how does poverty and oppression affect the views one holds toward work and the translation and implementation of self-concept over the life span? How amenable to change are the conceptions that children develop about self and work?

Super (1990) theorized that the dimensions of the growth stage lead to problem solving and decision making. However, little empirical attention has been given to the process of decision making in childhood. Given indications in the data of various decision-making styles (e.g., rational, relational), the childhood origins of decision making would be an important area for future inquiry.

As suggested by developmental-contextualism (Lerner, 1991; Walsh, Galassi, Murphy, & Park-Taylor, 2002), an understanding of the person and the environment in which the person is embedded, as well as the dynamic interaction between the two, is necessary to fully understand the developmental process. Thus, as suggested by theory (Lerner, 1991) and the results of this investigation, it is important to examine the domains of career development that were uncovered in this investigation together with the child's environmental context (i.e., family, neighborhood, school, community, society, and culture; Walsh et al., 2002). Given that socioeconomic and sociocultural contexts have been identified as important factors in academic achievement (Ferguson & Dickens, 1999), an investigation that assesses these contextual factors may illuminate the understanding of childhood career development across the multiple dimensions of the growth stage.

Limitations

The domains of childhood career development uncovered in this investigation were based on the written responses of urban fourth- and fifth-grade students, thereby limiting generalizations to others not represented by this sample. Second, the written nature of the responses did not allow for prompts to elicit elaboration or clarification of students' responses. Thus, if the information had been obtained by individual interview, it is possible that more detailed responses would have resulted. Third, only one data source was used. If we had also collected information from parents and teachers, these multiple sources of information may have further illuminated the findings. Fourth, given the written nature of the responses, the quality of the responses may have been influenced by the children's writing ability.

Conclusion

This investigation marks the first extensive examination of childhood career development. Important domains of the career process were identified that add to the knowledge of life span career development. Our findings support and extend Super's (1990) work by affirming the presence of multiple dimensions of the growth stage and suggesting alternative conceptualizations of how these dimensions coalesce--perhaps by representing less discrete constructs than originally hypothesized. The results also support literature attesting to the importance of early career interventions (Magnuson & Starr, 2000). Continued research on the process of childhood career development can contribute to the theoretical and research base necessary to inform career counseling practice. Moreover, coordinated efforts to deliver empirically supported comprehensive career interventions in school settings will expand counseling's contribution to developmental and prevention efforts and make a meaningful contribution to the education and development of students.

TABLE 1 Number of Cases for Categories From the Cross Analysis of the 49
Cases Regarding Childhood Career Development

                                           Case Percentages
                             Number                 Fourth   Fifth
Domain and Category          of Cases  Boys  Girls  Graders  Graders

Exploration and Information
Occupational exploration         9      16    20      21       13
Connecting school learning
  to work                        8      26    10      12       27
Exploration through play         7       5    20       9       27

Self-Concept
Awareness of abilities          45#     84#   97#     91#      93#
Awareness of interests          19      16    53#     32       53#
Translation of self-
  concept                       11      26    20      21       27

Key Figures
Teaching                        33#     68#   67#     62#      80#
Providing social support        27#     37    67#     47       73#
Identifying strengths and
  /or occupations               21      42    43      47       33
Serving as a role model         18      32    40      26       60#
Providing experiences           12      26    23      21       33
Influencing conceptions of
  work                          10      16    23      21       20
Emphasizing education            9       5    27      21       13
Instilling values                4       0    13       6       13

Locus of Control
Internal locus of control       21      32    50#     50#      27
External locus of contol         8      11    40      21        7

Time Perspective and Planning
Goals linking education
  and future work               41#     74#   90#     85#      80#
Identification of desired
  future job                    23      47    47      47       47
Family goals                     8      21    13      21        7

Decision Making
Considers health and safety     22      58#   37      56#      20
Follows rational process        15      32    30      38       13
Consults others                 10       5    30       6       53#
Uses conscience/feelings/
  intuition as a guide           8       5    23      15       20
Considers impression on
  others                         6       5    17       6       27
Follows rules                    5       0    17      15        0

Conceptions of Work
Importance of earning money
  and providing a home          13      26    27      26       27
Helping others                   3       0    10       6        7

Note. Typical (i.e., applying to 24 to 48 cases) categories are in bold.

Note: Typical (i.e., applying to 24 to 48 cases) categories indicated
with #.

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Donna E. Palladino Schultheiss and Alberta J. Manzi, Department of Counseling, Administration, Supervision, and Adult Learning, Cleveland State University; Thomas V. Palma, private practice, Kansas City, Missouri. This project was funded by a grant from the Ohio Campus Compact, Cleveland State University Center for Urban School Collaboration, and the Cleveland State University Department of Counseling, Administration, Supervision, and Adult Learning. The authors thank Cindy Juntunen and Graham B. Stead for their comments on a previous version of this article and acknowledge the contributions of Maureen Berg and Ameerah Draper and sincerely thank them for their assistance. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Donna E. Palladino Schultheiss, Department of Counseling, Administration, Supervision, and Adult Learning, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44115 (e-mail d.schultheiss@csuohio.edu).