An Exploratory Study of Glass Ceiling in Multi-National Organization.

INTRODUCTION

The number of women in the workplace has steadily risen over the past decades. In 1960 the female labor-force participation rate was 38% of the female population and by the end of 1992 had grown to 52% (Monthly Labor Review, 1993). The participation rate of older men has fallen

Literature overwhelmingly indicates that most women encounter barriers as they try to move into General Management and Executive Positions. This barrier has been labeled the glass-ceiling phenomenon (Morrison, White, Van Velsor, and the Center for Creative Leadership, 1987).

The glass ceiling was described as a transparent barrier that keeps women from rising above a certain level in corporations (Morrison, et. al., 1987). Women who are not white encounter additional barriers that restrict them from entering middle level management positions. This barrier was termed the Concrete Barrier by Ray and Davis (1988). A review of most business publications finds discussion of the glass ceiling in terms of top managerial positions in American's top companies. Fortune 500 and 1000 companies are frequently featured to cite the existence of the glass ceiling. According to Mainiero (1994), women still hold only 5% of the top jobs in Fortune 500 companies (i.e., positions within three levels of the Chief Executive Officer). Powell and Butterfield, (1994), stated that, all but one of the CEO's of the Business Week top 1,000 corporations for 1992 were men. The study of Smith and Mitchell, (1993), found that 71% of the men who graduated from Stanford MBA program are currently in the top four rungs of management, whereas only 34% of women had reached those positions.

The association of the glass ceiling and top positions in top companies is part of the motivation behind the research in this paper. Large companies account for the minority portion of the jobs held by women in America. The majority of women work in small to mid-size companies (58.9%) with less than 1,000 employees (1983 current population survey). The glass ceiling conditions at the top 1000 companies might be an indicator of the conditions at multinational companies but it doesn't necessarily define actual conditions. Similarly, one might expect the glass-ceiling phenomenon to manifest itself differently in multinatinal companies than it does in Fortune 1000 companies as most other issues do. The lack of research of the glass-ceiling phenomenon at multinational companies makes this study relevant.

A second motivator behind this study is gender segregation. Gender segregation has been used to explain why women make less than men do. Focus has moved towards occupational segregation, which theorizes that men and women are highly segregated by occupation, which results in female occupations being poorly paid (Bergman, 1986; Blau and Feber, 1986; Blau, 1989). In the United States women often fill manufacturing positions yet production management, a key position in any manufacturing companies, is almost exclusively a male position. Caudron (1994) reported that, EOC statistics show that in 1992 women held only 15.9% of managerial positions versus 38% in services and 41% in financial service companies. The disproportionate percentage of women in management at manufacturing companies makes research of the glass-ceiling phenomenon within manufacturing companies relevant.

The fact that most literature focuses on large companies, that most women work in multinational companies, and that women often fill non-management manufacturing positions, makes the study of the glass ceiling in multinational firms a relevant topic.

During the search for and evaluation of candidates, both job relevant and job irrelevant information is obtained. Job relevant information is data about the candidate, which accurately predicts his or her performance at the next management level. Job irrelevant information can include race, friendship, appearance, and gender.

Hypothesis 1: Women as mangers are less likely than men to be promoted to top level managerial positions in multinational firms.

Education has been defined as an accurate predictor of performance. American companies pay a premium for an educated employee. Researchers have found that education is a significant variable for describing the amount of human capital a person has. Similarly, education has been used as a variable in the research of differences in salary by gender (Baroudi and Truman, 1994). The researchers cite others who included education as a variable for explaining the amount of human capital a person has (Auster, 1989; England and McCready, 1987; Forgionne and Peeters, 1982; Weaver, 1978).

Since salary and management levels are closely linked in American companies, education should be an accurate predictor of a person's performance in a management position.

Hypothesis 2: Women with comparable education levels to men are less likely to be promoted into management positions of multinational firms, than these men, even when controlling for the other relevant variables.

Work experience has been identified as a variable that helps explain the quantity of human capital a person has (Auster, 1989; England and McCreary, 1987; Hulin and Smith, 1965; Olson and Frieze, 1987). Caroll and Lam (1995) identified education as a job relevant in a study, which concluded that the glass ceiling existed within the USDA Forest Service. Similarly, in a study of the glass ceiling phenomenon, Powell and Butterfield (1994), cite that work experience as a job relevant variable for promotion consideration.

Hypothesis 3: Women with comparable work experience to men are less likely to be promoted into management positions of multinational firms, than men, even when controlling for the other job relevant variables.

A person's job level was identified as a variable that helps explain the amount of human capital this person has (Baroudi and Truman, 1994). The highest grade and the years at the highest grade were identified as a job relevant variable in the study of the glass ceiling (Powell and Butterfield, 1994). The same pattern can be applied to multinational firms, which requires that a person gain experience in a position before being promoted to the next higher position.

Hypothesis 4: Women who occupy comparable positions to men are less likely to be promoted into management positions of multinational firms, than men, even when controlling for the other relevant variables.

The last significant variable applicable to the study of the glass ceiling is past performance. Although often subjective, past performance as documented in performance appraisals, is often a factor in determining whether to promote a person (Caroll and Lam, 1995; Powell and Butterfield, 1994; Stumpf and London, 1981; Taylor, 1975).

Hypothesis 5: Women who have performance ratings similar to men are less likely to be promoted into management positions of multinational firms, than men, even when controlling for the other job relevant variables.

METHOD

Subjects

For the purpose of this study 84 subjects were selected out of 200 subjects. The response rate count for about 42%, which is considered to be a very good response rate. Most of the subjects were graduate students with some Entrepreneurship experience. About 80% of them were over 30 years old. Eighty-five percent-occupied junior or middle management positions. Of the sample, 71 percent (n=60) were female and 29 percent (n=24) were male..

Instruments

Women As Managers Scale (WAMS) developed by Peters, Terborg, and Taynor (1974) was used in this study. The original scale had 21 items. Later on another item was added, based on the data collected by Bhatnagar (1987) from a similar sample. Fifty percent of these items were negatively worded. Each item was scored from 1 to 5, were 1 refers to strongly disagree and 5 refer to strongly agree. The minor change of this score from the original scale, which was 1 to 7, is due to compatibility with another scale we used in this study. The reported internal consistency coefficient for the WAMS was .84 (Peters et al. 1974). A principal component factor analysis was used to determine the dimensionally of WAMS. There were six factors; the first factor explained 50% of the variance, while the next three factors explained an average of 20% of the variance, and the other was much lower.

Analysis

Principal component factor analysis with VARIMAX rotation and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were used to test for main effects and for the interaction effect of the five job relevant variables (gender, education, work experience, position, and past performance). The selection of a factor and an item were based upon the following criteria: 1. Factor loading = 0.40, 2. Eigenvalue = 1, 3. Scree test of Eigenvalue. The analysis specified six factor, which presented in table 1. To test the hypothesis, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed highly significant F ratio for the first three hypothesis. The results are presented in tables 6.

TABLE 1
VARIMAX FACTOR STRUCTURE OF WOMEN AS MANAGER SCALE

              ITEMS                            F1     F2     F3     F4

Women cannot be assertive in
  business situations that demand it.          .77    .12    .07   -.18
Women cannot be aggressive in business
  situations that demand it.                   .76    .32    .19   -.13
Women are not ambitious enough to be
  successful in the business world.            .69   -.19    .06    .07
Women are not competitive enough to be
  successful in the business world.            .68    .05    .19   -.23
Women are less capable of learning
  mathematical and mechanical skills than
  are men.                                     .60    .22    .47   -.04
The possibility of pregnancy does not make
  women less desirable managers than men.     -.40   -.28    .10    .25
Women are at least as capable as men in
  controlling their subordinate staff.        -.46   -.13   -.36   -.15
Women have the capability to acquire the
  necessary skills to be successful
  managers.                                   -.54   -.44   -.46    .06
Society should regard work by female
  managers as valuable as work by male
  managers.                                   -.60   -.48   -.22    .32
Men and women should be given equal
  opportunity for participation in
  management training programs.               -.80   -.27   -.19    .14
It is not acceptable that women assume
  leadership roles as often as men.            .08    .80    .12   -.09
On the average, women managers are less
  capable of contributing to an
  organization's goals than are men.           .15    .76    .22   -.14
The business community should someday
  accept women in key managerial positions.   -.46   -.64   -.27    .24
Challenging work is more important to men
  than it is to women.                         .13    .29    .82   -.03
It is less desirable for women than for men
  to have a job that requires
  responsibility.                              .07    .15    .72   -.46
Women posses the self-confidence required
  of a good leader.                           -.44    .01   -.67    .20
To be a successful executive, a women does
  not have to sacrifice some of her
  femininity.                                 -.05   -.15   -.07    .78
It is acceptable for women to compete with
  men for top executive positions.            -.43   -.29   -.31    .59
A women who stays at home all the time with
  her children is a better mother than a
  women who works outside the home at least
  half time.                                   .25    .08    .19   -.67
Women tend to allow their emotions to
  influence their managerial behavior more
  than men.                                    .17    .13    .10    .01
Problems associated with menstruation
  should not make women less desirable than
  men as managers.                            -.40   -.22   -.16    .27
Women are good at realistic assessment of
  business situations.                        -.12   -.18   -.01    .17
Variance explained by each factor             5.0    2.8    2.7    2.2

              ITEMS                            F5     F6    FCE

Women cannot be assertive in
  business situations that demand it.          .25   -.11    .72
Women cannot be aggressive in business
  situations that demand it.                   .20   -.02    .79
Women are not ambitious enough to be
  successful in the business world.            .13   -.42    .71
Women are not competitive enough to be
  successful in the business world.            .31   -.10    .66
Women are less capable of learning
  mathematical and mechanical skills than
  are men.                                     .19   -.01    .67
The possibility of pregnancy does not make
  women less desirable managers than men.     -.27    .04    .36
Women are at least as capable as men in
  controlling their subordinate staff.        -.32    .40    .65
Women have the capability to acquire the
  necessary skills to be successful
  managers.                                    .08    .18    .75
Society should regard work by female
  managers as valuable as work by male
  managers.                                   -.17   -.06    .77
Men and women should be given equal
  opportunity for participation in
  management training programs.                .16   -.03    .77
It is not acceptable that women assume
  leadership roles as often as men.            .05   -.12    .69
On the average, women managers are less
  capable of contributing to an
  organization's goals than are men.           .35   -.12    .80
The business community should someday
  accept women in key managerial positions.   -.03   -.01    .77
Challenging work is more important to men
  than it is to women.                         .08   -.01    .78
It is less desirable for women than for men
  to have a job that requires
  responsibility.                              .03   -.16    .79
Women posses the self-confidence required
  of a good leader.                           -.21   -.10    .75
To be a successful executive, a women does
  not have to sacrifice some of her
  femininity.                                  .05    .32    .74
It is acceptable for women to compete with
  men for top executive positions.             .12   -.09    .75
A women who stays at home all the time with
  her children is a better mother than a
  women who works outside the home at least
  half time.                                   .38    .12    .71
Women tend to allow their emotions to
  influence their managerial behavior more
  than men.                                    .82   -.03    .73
Problems associated with menstruation
  should not make women less desirable than
  men as managers.                            -.41    .07    .49
Women are good at realistic assessment of
  business situations.                        -.02    .87    .84
Variance explained by each factor             1.7    1.4

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

The first hypothesis argued the effect of gender on the promotion into managerial position of multinational firms. As reported in Table 2, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), revealed highly significant F ratios for all six factors with Wilks lambda at 2.74, Pillai's criterion valued at 2.74, Hotelling-Lawley trace at 2.74, and Roy's greatest rote at 2.74. The Pr [is greater than] F were equal to 0.0019, which indicates a significant difference in terms of gender.

TABLE 2
THE IMPACT OF GENDER

                                                     F
                 ITEMS                     Mean    Value   Pr > F   LOS

It is less desirable for women than for
  men to have a job that requires         2.0144    9.20   0.0034    S
  responsibility.
Women are good at realistic assessment
  of business situations.                 3.7101    7.43   0.0082    S
Challenging work is more important to
  men than it is to women.                2.3043    8.23   0.0055    S
Men and women should be given equal
  opportunity for participation in
  management training programs.           4.5507   10.97   0.0015    S
Women have the capability to acquire
  the necessary skills to be successful
  managers.                               4.5072    7.93   0.0064    S
On the average, women managers are less
  capable of contributing to an
  organization's goals than are men.      1.9130    3.23   0.0767    S
It is not acceptable that women assume
  leadership roles as often as men.       2.1159    2.24   0.1392    NS
The business community should someday
  accept women in key managerial
  positions.                              4.2028   18.36   0.0001    S
Society should regard work by female
  managers as valuable as work by male
  managers.                               4.3768    7.90   0.0065    S
It is acceptable for women to compete
  with men for top executive positions.   4.3188   10.30   0.0020    S
The possibility of pregnancy does not
  make women less desirable managers
  than men.                               3.4637    2.73   0.1033    NS
Women tend to allow their emotions to
  influence their managerial behavior
  more than men.                          3.0289    4.13   0.0460    S
Problems associated with menstruation
  should not make women less desirable
  than men as managers.                   3.8550    9.95   0.0024    S
To be a successful executive, a women
  does not have to sacrifice some of
  her femininity.                         3.8695    2.90   0.0932    S
A women who stays at home all the time
  with her children is a better mother
  than a women who works outside the
  home at least half time.                2.5362   16.91   0.0001    S
Women are less capable of learning
  mathematical and mechanical
  skills than are men.                    1.6956   10.69   0.0017    S
Women are not ambitious enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.6811    6.23   0.0150    S
Women cannot be assertive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246   18.70   0.0001    S
Women posses the self-confidence
  required of a good leader.              3.9420   12.04   0.0009    S
Women are not competitive enough to be
  successful in the
  business world.                         1.8115   19.45   0.0001    S
Women cannot be aggressive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246   27.87   0.0001    S
Women are at least as capable as men in
  controlling their subordinate staff.    3.7826    3.09   0.0834    S

The second hypothesis indicated that women with comparable education levels to men would be less likely to be promoted into management position of multinational firms. The results shown in Table 3, indicate a highly significant difference among the three groups. The results of MANOVA revealed highly significant F ratios: Wilks' lambda at 3.31, Pillai's trace at 3.14, Hotellin-Lawley trace at 3.49, and Roy's greatest root at 5.35. The reported probabilities for all items were 0.0001.

TABLE 3
THE IMPACT OF EDUCATION

                                                     F
                 ITEMS                     Mean    Value   Pr > F   LOS

It is less desirable for women than for
  men to have a job that requires
  responsibility.                         2.0144    4.45   0.0153    S
Women are good at realistic assessment
  of business situations.                 3.7101    1.22   0.3026    NS
Challenging work is more important to
  men than it is to women.                2.3043    3.77   0.0282    S
Men and women should be given equal
  opportunity for participation in
  management training programs.           4.5507    2.49   0.0909    S
Women have the capability to acquire
  the necessary skills to be successful
  managers.                               4.5072    1.62   0.2054    NS
On the average, women managers are less
  capable of contributing to an
  organization's goals than are men.      1.9130    5.80   0.0048    S
It is not acceptable that women assume
  leadership roles as often as men.       2.1159    1.90   0.1570    NS
The business community should someday
  accept women in key managerial
  positions.                              4.2028    7.01   0.0017    S
Society should regard work by female
  managers as valuable as work by male
  managers.                               4.3768    6.00   0.0040    S
It is acceptable for women to compete
  with men for top executive positions.   4.3188    5.22   0.0078    S
The possibility of pregnancy does not
  make women less desirable managers
  than men.                               3.4637    2.27   0.1117    NS
Women tend to allow their emotions to
  influence their managerial
  behavior more than men.                 3.0289    2.11   0.1297    NS
Problems associated with menstruation
  should not make women
  less desirable than men as managers.    3.8550    1.31   0.2756    NS
To be a successful executive, a women
  does not have to sacrifice
  some of her femininity.                 3.8695    1.38   0.2594    NS
A women who stays at home all the time
  with her children is a better mother
  than a women who works outside the
  home at least half time.                2.5362    4.48   0.0150    S
Women are less capable of learning
  mathematical and mechanical skills
  than are men.                           1.6956    5.06   0.0090    S
Women are not ambitious enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.6811    2.63   0.0796    S
Women cannot be assertive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    5.07   0.0089    S
Women posses the self-confidence
  required of a good leader.              3.9420    3.00   0.0567    S
Women are not competitive enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.8115    0.80   0.4552    NS
Women cannot be aggressive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    9.15   0.0003    S
Women are at least as capable as men in
  controlling their subordinate staff.    3.7826    3.55   0.0343    S

The third hypothesis reflects the impact of work experience for women in comparison with men to be less likely to be promoted into management positions of multinational firms. The results of MANOVA presented in Table 4, indicates no significant differences among all groups.

TABLE 4
THE IMPACT OF WORK EXPERIENCE

                                                     F
                 ITEMS                     Mean    Value   Pr > F   LOS

It is less desirable for women than for
  men to have a job that men to have a
  job that responsibility.                2.0144    1.17   0.3350    NS
Women are good at realistic assessment
  of business situations.                 3.7101    1.29   0.2765    NS
Challenging work is more important to
  men than it is to women.                2.3043    1.21   0.3131    NS
Men and women should be given equal
  opportunity for participation in
  management training programs.           4.5507    1.41   0.2234    NS
Women have the capability to acquire
  the necessary skills to be
  successful managers.                    4.5072    1.23   0.3023    NS
On the average, women managers are less
  capable of contributing to an
  organization's goals than are men.      1.9130    2.94   0.0137    S
It is not acceptable that women assume
  leadership roles as often as men        2.1159    1.19   0.3221    NS
The business community should someday
  accept women in key managerial
  positions.                              4.2028    3.23   0.0080    S
Society should regard work by female
  managers as valuable as work by
  male managers.                          4.3768    2.85   0.0162    S
It is acceptable for women to compete
  with men for top executive positions.   4.3188    1.70   0.1353    NS
The possibility of pregnancy does not
  make women less desirable managers
  than men.                               3.4637    1.09   0.3766    NS
Women tend to allow their emotions to
  influence their managerial behavior
  more than men.                          3.0289    1.50   0.1925    NS
Problems associated with menstruation
  should not make women less desirable
  than men as managers.                   3.8550    1.35   0.2504    NS
To be a successful executive, a women
  does not have to sacrifice some of
  her femininity.                         3.8695    1.05   0.4002    NS
A women who stays at home all the time
  with her children is a better mother
  than a women who works outside the
  home at least half time.                2.5362    1.71   0.1324    NS
Women are less capable of learning
  mathematical and mechanical skills
  than are men.                           1.6956    2.68   0.0222    S
Women are not ambitious enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.6811    1.35   0.2470    NS
Women cannot be assertive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    1.31   0.2646    NS
Women posses the self-confidence
  required of a good leader.              3.9420    2.39   0.0383    S
Women are not competitive enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.8115    1.86   0.1015    NS
Women cannot be aggressive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    3.46   0.0052    S
Women are at least as capable as men in
  controlling their subordinate staff.    3.7826    2.18   0.0567    S

The same results were also true for the last two hypotheses as indicated in Tables 5 and 6.

TABLE 5
THE IMPACT OF MANAGERIAL POSITION

                                                     F
                 ITEMS                     Mean    Value   Pr > F   LOS

It is less desirable for women than for
  men to have a job that requires
  responsibility.                         2.0144    0.43   0.8783    NS
Women are good at realistic assessment
  of business situations.                 3.7101    1.47   0.1946    NS
Challenging work is more important to
  men than it is to women.                2.3043    0.21   0.9814    NS
Men and women should be given equal
  opportunity for participation in
  management training programs.           4.5507    0.93   0.4921    NS
Women have the capability to acquire
  the necessary skills to be successful
  managers.                               4.5072    0.94   0.4811    NS
On the average, women managers are less
  capable of contributing to an
  organization's goals than are men.      1.9130    0.66   0.7063    NS
It is not acceptable that women assume
  leadership roles as often as men.       2.1150    0.18   0.9884    NS
The business community should someday
  accept women in key managerial
  positions.                              4.2028    0.46   0.8568    NS
Society should regard work by female
  managers as valuable as work by
  male managers.                          4.3768    1.52   0.1761    NS
It is acceptable for women to compete
  with men for top executive positions.   4.3188    0.66   0.7074    NS
The possibility of pregnancy does not
  make women less desirable managers
  than men.                               3.4637    2.99   0.0091    S
Women tend to allow their emotions to
  influence their managerial behavior
  more than men.                          3.0289    1.27   0.2792    NS
Problems associated with menstruation
  should not make women less desirable
  than men as managers.                   3.8550    0.83   0.5680    NS
To be a successful executive, a women
  does not have to sacrifice some of
  her femininity.                         3.8695    0.62   0.7333    NS
A women who stays at home all the time
  with her children is a better mother
  than a women who works outside the
  home at least half time.                2.5362    0.99   0.4477    NS
Women are less capable of learning
  mathematical and mechanical skills
  than are men.                           1.6956    0.77   0.6149    NS
Women are not ambitious enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.6811    1.55   0.1691    NS
Women cannot be assertive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    1.19   0.3236    NS
Women posses the self-confidence
  required of a good leader.              3.9420    1.87   0.0895    S
Women are not competitive enough to be
  successful in the successful in the     1.8115    2.43   0.0290    S
  business world.
Women cannot be aggressive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    0.97   0.4639    NS
Women are at least as capable as men in
  controlling their subordinate staff.    3.7826    1.28   0.2748    NS
TABLE 6
THE IMPACT OF PAST PERFORMANCE

                                                     F
                 ITEMS                     Mean    Value   Pr > F   LOS

It is less desirable for women than for
  men to have a job that requires
  responsibility.                         2.0144    0.50   0.7735    NS
Women are good at realistic assessment
  of business situations.                 3.7101    0.70   0.6255    NS
Challenging work is more important to
  men than it is to women.                2.3043    0.27   0.9277    NS
Men and women should be given equal
  opportunity for participation in
  management training programs.           4.5507    0.89   0.4917    NS
Women have the capability to acquire
  the necessary skills to be successful
  managers.                               4.5072    1.81   0.1232    NS
On the average, women managers are less
  capable of contributing to an
  organization's goals than are men.      1.9130    0.98   0.4362    NS
It is not acceptable that women assume
  leadership roles as often as men.       2.115     1.45   0.2202    NS
The business community should someday
  accept women in key managerial
  positions.                              4.2028    0.63   0.6789    NS
Society should regard work by female
  managers as valuable as work by
  male managers.                          4.3768    1.00   0.4276    NS
It is acceptable for women to compete
  with men for top executive positions.   4.3188    1.14   0.3493    NS
The possibility of pregnancy does not
  make women less desirable managers
  than men.                               3.4637    0.24   0.9441    NS
Women tend to allow their emotions to
  influence their managerial behavior
  more than men.                          3.0289    0.47   0.7987    NS
Problems associated with menstruation
  should not make women less desirable
  than men as managers.                   3.8550    0.73   0.6016    NS
To be a successful executive, a women
  does not have to sacrifice some of
  her femininity.                         3.8695    0.72   0.6142    NS
A women who stays at home all the time
  with her children is a better mother
  than a women who works outside the
  home at least half time.                2.5362    0.60   0.6993    NS
Women are less capable of learning
  mathematical and mechanical skills
  than are men.                           1.9656    0.62   0.6884    NS
Women are not ambitious enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.6811    2.05   0.0835    S
Women cannot be assertive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    1.12   0.3594    NS
Women posses the self-confidence
  required of a good leader.              3.9420    0.66   0.6586    NS
Women are not competitive enough to be
  successful in the business world.       1.8115    0.74   0.5960    NS
Women cannot be aggressive in business
  situations that demand it.              1.7246    0.75   0.5902    NS
Women are at least as capable as men
  in controlling their subordinate
  staff.                                  3.7826    0.52   0.7638    NS

The results of this study support that, gender and education are very important variables for determining promotion into managerial positions in multinational firms. These findings have value for organizations in terms of examining the glass ceiling phenomenon and managing multinational firms in particularly. Of course there are certain limitations to this study and its conclusions. First, other complementary methods and instruments, and second more representative national samples are needed to have a clearer presentation of this research.

This study opens up a number of future research directions such as:

1. Cross cultural analysis for the same WAMS in different cultures.

2. Examining the glass-ceiling phenomenon in different cultures.

3. Integrating the measure of perceived competence developed by Wagner and Morse (1975) to this study.

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