Hospitality: a liberal introduction.

Hospitality management higher education's historic origins have resulted in a strong vocational ethos permeating curricula. Knowledge about hospitality has been drawn from the industry and the world of work rather than from the many disciplines or other fields of enquiry, which help explain

hospitality. However, it would appear that a point has been reached where there is a will for hospitality management education to break out from its vocational and action orientation and begin to explore new territories that would embrace a more liberal and reflective orientation. The impetus may reflect maturity within the field of knowledge, and/or a generational change in the professional and academic profiles of the personalities who dominate.

Thus, this paper explores hospitality management education, the movement towards the inclusion of a more liberal and reflective orientation, and provides an example of how a more liberal base was introduced into the curricula at two universities located in Australia and Scotland respectively.

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The aim of this paper is to critically analyse literature associated with hospitality management and liberal education, and to consider implications for curriculum. Spanning two decades, the literature reveals some major tensions, contradictions and debates confronting contemporary hospitality management educationalists. Specifically it has been found that hospitality management education is a field of academic study that continues to struggle for definition. Acceptance of an appropriate conceptual framework remains elusive, and there is little agreement on what constitutes the core body of knowledge. Furthermore, there appears to be a significant and growing movement in support of the incorporation of a more liberal and reflective orientation in the hospitality management curriculum. The findings of this meta-analysis are employed to provide the educational architecture supporting the design and development of an introductory class to hospitality as a specialist higher education field of study.

Two higher education institutes identified the need for such a class independently, and geographically half a world apart. In 2000 an extensive curriculum review was carried out of the Bachelor of Business in Hospitality Management at the School of Hospitality, Tourism and Marketing at Victoria University in Melbourne. One of the key findings was that a subject that introduced undergraduate students to the concept of hospitality, the industry sector, and management constructs and practices was vital for the curriculum. At the same time, a major curriculum review of the Bachelor of Arts in Hotel and Hospitality Management at the Scottish Hotel School at the University of Strathclyde arrived at the same conclusion. Consequently, both universities developed an introductory class to hospitality, designed to develop an early sense of scope, context, meaning and self-understanding relative to the students' chosen specialisation, and the management issues and challenges therein. A common and collaborative approach to class design and development was adopted by the two universities, which deliberately integrated a liberal and reflective way of thinking and learning about hospitality, the industry and management practices. An overview of the class that has been piloted in Australia and Scotland respectively is provided; extracts from students work are used to demonstrate some of the results achieved; and conclusions are drawn relative to the implications for hospitality management education.

Hospitality Management Education

According to Nailon (1982) the development of hospitality management education has been evolutionary. Moreover, he advises that the curriculum in hospitality education originated from a vocational base and maintains that the traditional approach to hospitality education was based on an amalgam of craft, ritual and inherited practices. As a result, Nailon concludes that:

   What seems to be missing [in the hospitality curriculum] is any general
   agreement of a conceptual statement about the constituent parts of a
   theoretical framework and body of knowledge which constitutes hospitality
   management (p. 135).

Adding to the debate is Wood's (1992) comprehensive review of the hospitality industry in which it is argued that, although specific hospitality management courses have been available in the United Kingdom (UK) for over 20 years this has not led to any great improvement in industry practices or conditions for hospitality employees. Implicit in this observation is the notion that university graduates may be deficient in the ability to reflect on, and ameliorate industry and management practices. According to Nailon (1982, p. 137) this is because traditionally standards of excellence in the hospitality industry have been "judged more on the manner in which rules and rituals were followed than the satisfaction of the needs and wants of the customer".

Thus, by the 1990s it would appear that an inclusive framework to deliver hospitality management education had still not been formalised. For example, Hegarty (1992) suggests that a new paradigm for tourism and hospitality development needs to be established, and advocates the inclusion of philosophy and ethics in the development of a framework for hospitality education. Later, Ingram (1999, p. 140) advocates for theoretical paradigms and "learning frameworks by which students can be taught so as to supply the increasing need for better trained and more competent managers and skilled workers". At the commencement of the 21st century, the publication of an edited book entitled In Search of Hospitality (Lashley & Morrison, 2000), implied that a comprehensive theoretical framework which establishes hospitality as an academic field of study has still yet to be defined. Although this publication concludes that it exists both within the commercial hospitality domain and within the broader social sphere of culture, anthropology, philosophy, and sociology most of the contributors agree that much of this important material has yet to be defined and embedded in the hospitality curriculum. Furthermore, this stance could be criticised in its neglect of the natural sciences.

Internationally a similar situation exists. For example, from a North American perspective, Bloomquist and Moreo (1997, p. 10) assert that "as hospitality and tourism education matures as an academic field, it continues to struggle to define itself". One reason may be that hospitality management education has been positioned traditionally within a variety of academic disciplines. This has led to an equally varied listing of degree names including Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Business, and Bachelor of Science in either hotel, catering or hospitality management--all of which are designed to qualify graduates to engage in management positions within the hospitality industry (Barrow & Bosselman, 1999). In Australia the pattern of development has followed along similar lines. Indeed, Hobson (1995, p. 26) notes that, like the UK and the United States (US), hospitality and tourism programs have "grown out of a number of discipline areas--such as recreation, leisure, geography and hotel management".

Definitional and discipline confusion, combined with an absence of a conceptual framework or general agreement on the nature and content of the hospitality curriculum leads some academics to puzzle over how the subject area can be taught if broad parameters cannot be defined (Taylor & Edgar, 1999). Pizam, Lewis and Manning (1982) suggest that a number of objective, quantitative elements comprise part of hospitality management and therefore should be included in curricula. The literature does suggest, however, that an opportunity exists to explore additional subject matter. For example, Nailon (1982) concludes that, whilst hospitality is considered to be a business activity, hospitality education can, in fact, include the liberal arts, which contrasts with a traditional vocational and action orientation (Tribe, 1997), which would also seem to be the tenet of the Lashley and Morrison (2000) publication. Indeed, it affirms that hospitality management education is undergoing a paradigmatic shift (Lashley, 2000), linked inextricably to the argument presented by Wood (1992), that managers need to be reflective in their approach to hospitality management. The importance of reflection in a practical hospitality setting has also been noted in a UK study by Baum (1990), which identified the competencies required by hospitality managers. Thus, it can be argued that the "soft skills" and reflection ought to be included in the hospitality management curriculum. Adding weight to this argument, Airey and Tribe (2000) assert that a curriculum for reflection is directly related to what is known as liberal education.

Liberal Education

The concept of liberal education is not new. Indeed, Peters' seminal work Ethics and Education (1966), proposes that it can add value to specialist curricula by opening up the mind to alternative streams of consciousness. For example, he suggests that liberal education allows learners to "go deeper into the discipline, to begin to grasp from the inside what this form of scientific thought entails, and to be attracted and absorbed by the values immanent in this form of inquiry" (p. 44). Peters also reports that such reflection and enquiry embodies the types of activities for which a curriculum of a university is largely constructed. This involves embarking on those forms of inquiry such as science, history, literature and philosophy, which are concerned with the description, explanation, and assessment of different forms of human activity. Advice is provided that liberal education can co-exist with and enhance other educational processes including those that are vocational in nature, asserting that:

   An educated man [or woman] could be trained in one sphere, for example,
   science [or hospitality management], and yet be sufficiently cognizant of
   other ways of looking at the world, so that he [or she] can grasp the
   historical perspective, social significance or aesthetic merit of his [or
   her] work and much besides (p. 44).

Airey and Tribe (2000) support this, questioning the extent to which traditional hospitality management higher education prepares students to be able to think outside existing practices and paradigms, providing personal and professional development, which promotes the general powers of the mind. The notion that liberal education can form an integral component of hospitality management courses is further supported by Pizam, Lewis and Manning (1982, p. xiii) asserting that "a successful hospitality manager must be versed in conceptual and technical tools drawn from disciplines such as psychology, engineering, operations research and mathematics". Thus, a liberal base should represent an important component of higher education programs, and students are expected to evaluate conceptual frameworks, as well as reflecting upon and synthesising material. Furthermore, while these represent a long-established features associated with higher education, Katz (1996) argues for the contemporary relevance of the liberal arts, asserting that:

   Our society needs citizens who can rapidly adapt to the changing needs of
   the growth and technological development of the economy, who also have an
   unprecedented degree of specialised knowledge, yet those young people will
   be best served by an education sufficiently liberal and unspecialised that
   they are primarily trained to be broadly knowledgeable and to think clearly
   and creatively (p. 82).

Barrow and Bosselman (1999) concur with Katz's assertion arguing that as the international hospitality industry and business environment are so dynamic it is unrealistic to assume that curriculum content can accurately reflect current industry practices. Students would be better served by a more balanced curriculum providing for the vocational knowable and liberal unknowable personal and professional development. Variations of this form of curriculum have recently been incorporated into a number of hospitality management education programs. For example, a Bachelor of Arts in Culinary Art is offered at Dublin Institute of Technology representing a transition from a traditionally vocational area of professional cookery towards an analysis of culinary customs and food habits. In addition, Griffin and Thompson (1997) document the inclusion of gastronomy within both under-graduate and postgraduate hospitality courses at a number of institutions in the US. They assert that the educational value is due to "the richness of thought derived from an increasingly well-educated culinary workforce" (p. 244).

A Liberal Introduction

The foregoing discussion would appear to support the embedding of a liberal base within a hospitality management curriculum. This is justified on the basis that broad curriculum parameters that incorporate the vocational and pragmatic, alongside the liberal and reflective, have the potential to co-exist and mutually enhance the educational process. In this way students should benefit from a holistic higher education experience that combines the power of specialised knowledge with the power of the mind. Such an educational approach would serve to address concerns identified related to the perpetuation of ritualistic and inherited management practices, and deficiencies in the reflective and creative capabilities of graduates.

This was the educational approach adopted in the design and development of an introductory class to hospitality at the universities of Victoria and Strathclyde. The class was piloted in Australia and Scotland in 2001. The overall aim of the class is to provide students firstly with the opportunity to reflect on issues associated with hospitality per se, rather than the more traditional educational starting point of identifying and defining historic and existing industry and management processes. Therefore, it was designed to heighten individual self-understanding of hospitality, enhanced by teaching and learning activities that encourage reflection, doing, valuing, feeling, behaving and relating to social others; and sensitise students to a holistic concept of hospitality, the manner in which it manifests itself within society, how it translates into commercial enterprise and the management issues and challenges therein. The objectives of the class are to:

* Develop a social science embedded conceptual framework that supports learning, stimulates reflective thinking and critical analysis of hospitality as a concept broadly defined.

* Expose students to insights into the study of hospitality that encompass the commercial provision of hospitality and the hospitality industry.

* Orientate the students to the hospitality industry and the management issues that confront it.

At the outset of class design and development, three key challenges were identified: definition of"hospitality"; agreement as to a conceptual framework and core body of knowledge that achieved a vocational/liberal balance; and teaching and learning styles that incorporate both the pragmatic and reflective.

It was considered to be of primary importance that definition of the class allowed for breadth and depth of analysis of hospitality both as a business and as a cultural phenomenon. A valuable contribution to this process is the work Brotherton (1999) and Brotherton and Wood (2000). They seek to circumscribe the debate on definition and the relationship between "hospitality", "hospitality industry" and "hospitality management". At the core is the concept of hospitality, which can be differentiated from other forms of human exchange, defined by (Brotherton, 1999, p. 168) as "a contemporaneous human exchange, which is voluntarily entered into, and designed to enhance the mutual well being of the parties concerned through the provision of accommodation, and/or food and/or drink". It would then logically follow that the hospitality industry is "comprised of commercial organisations that specialise in providing accommodation and/or food and/or drink, through a voluntary human exchange, which is contemporaneous in nature, and undertaken to enhance the mutual well being of the parties concerned" (Brotherton & Wood, 2000, p. 143). Finally, the management of hospitality is defined as one set of intellectual constructs and practices (management) applied to another (hospitality). This definitional stance frees the concept of hospitality from any predetermined context for study, such as business, and captures its essence, placing the deep seated social significance of hospitality at the heart across a range of domestic, social and/or commercial domains (King, 1995; Lashley, 2000). Consequently, this three-tiered approach to the definition of hospitality serves to widen student understanding and enables teaching and learning to be orientated within the broader, more inclusive and comparative perspectives, facilitating the systematic examination of social, psychological and economic exchanges and the relationship to hospitality management constructs and practices therein.

A starting resource utilised to provide a conceptual framework and to form the parameters for the core body of knowledge of the class was the textbook edited by Lashley and Morrison (2000). This was deemed appropriate as it takes account of current vocational/liberal debates associated with hospitality management education. In addition, the content provides for a wider understanding of theories associated with the concept of hospitality informed from a range of academic disciplines including history, anthropology, philosophy, politics, sociology and business. However, the textbook was originally conceived for level four students, and the content was mainly drawn from a UK perspective. Consequently, in both the UK and Australian contexts there were fairly complex concepts, theories and issues to be "unpacked" and presented in a manner that would effectively engage level one students in the learning process. Furthermore, supplementary readings were required to augment the text to reflect the wider cultural contexts and students' countries of origin in the educational process (see Appendix).

There is general support for Lashley's (1999) finding that students of hospitality management are, in the main, activist learners who learn by doing and experiencing. Therefore, it was considered important to actively engage students in the learning process. In particular, there was sensitivity to the perceptions, experience, expectations and knowledge of hospitality that the students bring individually and collectively to the class. While wide experience of commercial hospitality in its various guises may not be universal within a student population, it could be assumed that irrespective of economic and cultural background, all students will have been consumers and producers of some form of hospitality, albeit within domestic and/or social environments. Thus, the class was designed to explicitly engage a student's life experience and ways of seeing the world in the learning process. An example of a learning program designed to achieve this is illustrated in an indicative schema of the content of the class and associated learning activities, which is presented in Table 1. For each session there was a lecture program, required reading and student-centred activity. Each activity was designed to first engage the student in reflection, followed by translation into implications for industry and management.

The range of student-centred activities contributes to an individual portfolio that comprises the assessment, used as a tool to assess the development and growth of student learning as the class progressed (Ewell, 1997). The nature of this assessment was considered crucial to the reflective process as portfolios are a type of performance assessment in which students' work is systematically reviewed for evidence of learning and development (Palomba, 1999). It also provides a good indicator of student reflection because students are required to assemble evidence to show what learning has taken place (Nightingale et al., 1996). This was seen as particularly important when dealing with level one students, especially when the diversity of cultural backgrounds and varied tertiary education entrance pathways are taken into consideration. The portfolio involves a two-stage process that is, the collection and assembly of evidence followed by an analysis of that evidence. Students were required to write a weekly portfolio entry based on an activity that was directly linked to the lecture material. This had the effect of explaining and extending learning whilst compelling students to reflect on lecture content and to present their own thoughts and interpretations in a written format. Students were then encouraged to deepen their analysis by completing an essay, which incorporated their synopsis of the material assembled in their completed portfolio.

At Victoria University an independent evaluation was conducted by the University's Centre for Educational Development and Support using an instrument that included a battery of questions that were quantitatively analysed, and a section for students to make qualitative comments. Whilst the class scored impressively when quantitatively evaluated, it was the individual comments by students that provided the greatest insights. An indicative sample of these qualitative statements as well as comments that students chose (unsolicited) to include in their learning portfolios is provided below. This preliminary evaluation is considered to be encouraging and suggests that there is merit in this approach, towards the liberalisation of hospitality management education curricula:

   When I arrived at my first lecture for Introduction to Hospitality I
   brought with me a rather sceptical and pessimistic view of, `what are they
   going to teach us'. Today I overlook that statement and what I didn't
   realise is that there is a distinction between hospitality as a concept and
   commercial hospitality and that hospitality has originated from both
   private and social sectors.

   A better understanding of various cultures would seem appropriate given
   that Australia contains many different cultures and with that many
   different traditions and consumption habits, the commercial host would not
   only be catering for one band of persons but a variety of individuals

   Whilst studying this subject I have learnt more about simple actions and
   reactions and how they influence those around me. It has also made me more
   understanding of and curious about other cultures. I believed that I came
   from a multicultural family but really I don't understand half of what's
   out there. The subject highlighted the past and how the past really does
   effect the present and our perception on current events.

Finally, and probably the most reassuring:

   I am left with a greater understanding of hospitality not as a word and a
   specific definition but as an ongoing learning experience into the world of
   hospitality.

Thus, the overall class definition, conceptual framework, teaching and learning strategy and assessment regime is designed to nurture the active and reflective engagement of students in the learning process. Importantly, it may provide one key to unlocking the students' academic and professional potential through implanting educational interventions designed to embrace the concept of hospitality in a liberal and reflective manner, while still making the intellectual connections to vocation and action.

Conclusions and Implications

It is concluded that early evaluation of this innovatory, introductory class to hospitality indicates an optimisation of the, often, contested curriculum space (Airey & Tribe, 2000). Moreover, a reflective learning process commences at an early stage in students' studies allowing them to bring this learning style into subsequent hospitality management studies, and into the hospitality industry on graduation.

Specifically, the class:

1. Is based on a design that embraces a medium of presentation that is universally accessible for students of diverse cultural backgrounds and educational entry pathways.

2. Facilitates a high degree of reflection and discovery learning.

3. Uses student-centred activities to build a body of knowledge in the subject area in a decisive and reflective way by enhancing and extending concepts presented in lectures.

4. Applies assessment procedures that are supportive and appropriate to an active and reflective learning process.

5. Draws on concepts of hospitality from a private or domestic perspective thus all students begin their studies at a similar level of knowledge.

6. Includes the private and social domains of hospitality that serves to embrace the multicultural nature of the student base.

Contemporary hospitality management education faces a number of significant tensions, contradictions and debates, which it would be presumptuous of the authors to pretend to have comprehensively addressed in this paper. What has been provided is an insight into a component of the educational process that was designed to develop an early sense of scope, context, meaning and self-understanding relative to a broad conceptualisation of hospitality as a specialist academic field of study. It deliberately integrated the specialist vocational within a liberal base, demonstrating how the two theoretical strands can be complementary in the educational process, equipping students with equally valued technical and conceptual tools. As yet the longitudinal effects for the students and industry are unknown. However, it is proposed that there is a potential that traditional hospitality paradigms and management practices may be challenged, inherited rituals questioned, and breakout from historically derived mindsets achieved, to revitalise and invent the future rather than simply replicating the past.

Appendix

Supplementary Reading Materials

Beardsworth, A. & Keil, T. (1997). Sociology on the menu. London: Routledge.

Bell, D. & Valentine, E. (1997). Consuming geographies: We are where we eat. London: Routledge.

Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Corrigan, P. (1997). The sociology of consumption. London: Sage.

Finkelstein, J. (1989). Dining out: A sociology of modern manners. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. London: Penguin.

Heal, F. (1990) Hospitality in early modern England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Hochschild, A. (1983). The managed heart. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Langley, J., & Moore, D. (1933). The pleasure of your company. London: Gerald Howe.

Mauss, M. (1990). The gift forms and functions of exchange in archaic societies. London: Routledge.

McCannell, D. (1992) Empty meeting grounds. London: Routledge.

Mennel, S. Murcott, A. & van Otterloo, A. (1992). The sociology of food: Eating, diet and culture. London: Sage.

Mennell, S. (1985) All manners of food. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Orwell, G. (1933). Down and out in Paris and London. London: Penguin.

Ritzer, G. (1998). The McDonaldization thesis: Explorations and extensions. New York: Sage,

Santich, B. (1988). McLaren Vale: Sea and vines. Adelaide: Wakefield Press.

Symons, M. (1984). One continuous picnic. Adelaide: Duck Press.

Symons, M. (1993). The shared table. Canberra: AGPS.

Telfer, E. (1996). Food for thought: Philosophy and food. London: Routledge.

Urry, J. (1990) The tourist gaze. London: Sage.

Visser, M. (1993). The rituals of dinner: The origins, evolution, eccentricities, and meaning of table manners. London: Penguin.

Visser, M. (1988). Much depends on dinner: The extraordinary history and mythology, allure and obsessions, perils and taboos of an ordinary meal. New York: Macmillan

Walton, J. (1983). The English seaside resort: A social history. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

White, A. (1968). Palaces of the people: A social history of commercial hospitality. New York: Taplinger.

Wood, R. (1995). The sociology of the meal Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Table 1
Introduction To Hospitality--An Indicative Schema

Session   Content And Activities

   1      Introduction to the class: Hospitality as a field of study.
          Activity 1: My most enjoyable meal--what contributed to this?

   2      The concept of hospitality: The stranger and social exchange.
          Activity 2: What is the essence of `hospitality'?

   3      The concept of hospitality: The domestic and social worlds of
          hospitality.
          Activity 3: How do aspects of hospitality enjoyed in the home
          compare (or not) with commercial hospitality experience
          during a night out with friends?

   4      Historical perspective: Origins of modern, commercial
          hospitality.
          Activity 4: Research and outline the historical origins of
          one type of commercial hospitality.

   5      Sociology and hospitality: Interpretations and presentations
          of commercial hospitality.
          Activity 5: Video: Ayers Rock Resort--what are they
          `selling'?

   6      Sociology and hospitality: Debates about commoditisation.
          Activity 6: What contributed to your best family holiday
          ever?

   7      Cultural variations in hospitality: Globalisation or
          differentiation?
          Activity 7: Is the concept of hospitality the same the world
          over?

   8      The concept of hospitality: Review and synthesis.
          Activity 8: Representations of hospitality in popular media.

   9      The commercial domain: The forms of hospitality.
          Activity 9: Internet search for different categories of
          commercial hospitality.

  10      Operationalising concepts of hospitality: Industry case
          studies.
          Activity 10: What the employment adverts say about
          hospitality managers.

  11      Hospitality management practices and challenges.
          Activity 11: Analysis of companies who clearly exhibit
          concepts of hospitality in their operations.

  12      Review and synthesis: Hospitality as concept, commercial
          provision and management practices.

References

Airey, D., & Tribe, J. (2000). Education for hospitality. In C. Lashley & A. Morrison (Eds.), In Search of hospitality: Theoretical perspectives and debates (pp. 276-91). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Barrow, C., & Bosselman, R. (Eds.). (1999). Hospitality management education. New York: Haworth Hospitality Press.

Baum, T. (1990). Competencies for hotel management: Industry expectations of education. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 2(4) 13-16.

Bloomquist, P., & Moreo, P. (1997). What's in a name? An exploration of program names in the field of hospitality education. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 9(2), 10-15.

Brotherton, B. (1999). The handbook of contemporary hospitality management research. London: John Wiley.

Brotherton, B., & Wood, R. (2000). Hospitality and hospitality management. In C. Lashley & A. Morrison (Eds.), In Search of hospitality: Theoretical perspectives and debates (pp. 134-54). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Ewell, P. (1997). Identifying Indicators of Curricular Quality. In J.G. Gaff (Ed.), The handbook of undergraduate curriculum. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Griffin, J., & Thompson, C. (1997). The Maturation of Gastronomy as a Field of Study In Proceedings of the Council for Restaurant and Institutional Education (CHRIE) conference, Providence, Rhode Island, 244-245.

Hegarty, J. (1992). Towards Establishing a new paradigm for tourism and hospitality development, International journal of Hospitality Management, 11(4), 309-317.

Higher Education Funding Council for England. (1998). Review of hospitality management education. Bristol: HEFCE.

Hobson, J. (1995). The development of hospitality and tourism education in Australia. Hospitality and Tourism Educator, 7(4), 25-29.

Ingram, H. (1999). Hospitality: A framework for a millennial review. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(4), 140-147.

Katz, S. (1996). Restructuring for the Twenty First Century. In H. Farnham & A. Yarmolinsky (Eds.), Rethinking liberal education. New York: Oxford University Press.

King, C. (1995). What is Hospitality? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 14(3/4). 219-234.

Lashley, C. (1999). On making silk purses: Developing reflective practitioners in hospitality management education. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(4), 180-185.

Lashley, C. (2000). Towards a theoretical understanding. In C. Lashley & C. A. Morrison (Eds.), In Search of Hospitality: Theoretical perspectives and debates (pp. 1-16). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann

Nailon, P. (1982). Theory in hospitality management. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 1(3), 135-142.

Nightingale, P., Te Wiata, I., Toohey, S., Ryan, G., Hughes, C., & Magin, D. (1996). Assessing learning in universities. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Palomba C. (1999). Assessment Essentials: Planning, implementing and improving assessment in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Peters, R, (1966). Ethics and education. London: George Allen and Unwin.

Pizam, A., Lewis, E., & Manning, P. (1982). The practice of hospitality management, Connecticut: AVI Press.

Taylor, S., & Edgar, D. (1999). Lacuna or lost cause? Some reflections on hospitality management research. In B. Brotherton (Ed.), The handbook of contemporary hospitality management research (pp. 19-38). Chichester: John Wiley.

Tribe, J. (1997). The Indiscipline of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (3), 628-57.

Wood, R. (1992). Working in hotels and catering. London: Routledge.

Correspondence

Address for correspondence: Alison Morrison,
Director of Research, The Scottish Hotel School,
University of Strathclyde, 94 Cathedral Street, Glasgow,
G4 OIG Scotland, UK. Email: alison.j.morrison@strath.ac.uk

Alison Morrison
University of Strathclyde,
United Kingdom

G. Barry O'Mahony
Victoria University, Australia